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STUDIES  IN 


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STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 


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THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    ■    BOSTON    -    CHICAGO 
DALLAS   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN   &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.   OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


STUDIES  IN  LlTEiUTUllE 


BY 

FREDERICK   M.   TISDEL,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    ENGLISH 
IN     THE     UNIVERSITY    OF     MISSOURI 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1913 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTEIGHT,    1913, 

By  the   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  February,  1913.     Reprinted 
June,  1913. 


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PREFACE 

This  book  is  intended  as  a  textbook  for  secondary  schools ; 
it  is  a  guide  to  the  study  of  the  classics  read  in  these  schools 
and  required  for  admission  to  college  in  English.  Its  purpose 
is  not  to  take  the  place  of  the  introductions  and  notes  of  the 
annotated  editions,  but  to  supplement  them.  The  objects  of 
the  study  of  any  classic  in  the  secondary  schools  are  four: 
(1)  to  undei'stand  the  language  of  the  classic;  (2)  to  appre- 
ciate its  literary  qualities,  especially  those  qualities  that  make 
the  classic  a  masterpiece  of  the  type  of  literature  to  which  it 
belongs;  (3)  to  realize  the  connection  of  the  classic  with  life, 
and  (4)  to  fix  the  place  of  the  classic  in  literary  history.  For 
the  first  of  these  objects,  the  annotated  editions  give  ample 
help.  In  this  textbook,  therefore,  purely  philological  notes 
have  been,  for  the  most  part,  avoided.  In  Part  I,  the  primary 
aim  has  been  to  define  briefly  the  various  literary  types  and 
to  impress  their  most  salient  characteristics  by  an  inductive 
study  of  representative  classics.  An  effort  has  also  been 
made  to  bring  the  thought  of  the  classics  into  relation 
with  ordinary  experience.  There  are  some  who  believe 
such  a  "  literary  study  "  impracticable.  The  author  thinks 
otherwise.  His  experience  in  teaching  in  the  secondary 
schools  has  led  him  to  believe  that  something  more  can  be 
done  to  systematize  "literary  study."  He  realizes  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  a  consistent  course  between  the  obvious  and 
trivial  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  vague  and  impressional  on  the 
other,  and  can  hardly  expect  to  be  free  from  error  in  one  or 
the  other  direction.  If,  however,  some  contribution  is  made 
toward  systematic  literary  study  in  the  secondary  schools,  and 


Vlll 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART    II 


CIIAPTBE 

VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


X. 

XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


PAGE 

The  Old  English  Period 177 

(a)   The  Early  Literature  of  the  Anglo-Saxons    . 

177 

(b)   The  Traditional  Literature  of  the  Celts 

181 

(c)   Christian  Literature        .... 

182 

The  Middle  English  Period 

.     190 

(a)    The  Romance  and  the  Ballac 

190 

(b)    The  Age  of  Chaucer 

201 

(c)   The  Rise  of  the  Drama  . 

209 

The  Renaissance   . 

217 

(a)  Non-dramatic  Literature 

219 

(b)   Dramatic  Literature 

223 

The  Puritan  Age  . 

238 

Classicism        .... 

249 

(a)   The  Drama      . 

251 

(b)   Non-dramatic  Poetry 

253 

(c)   The  Essay  and  the  Pamphlet 

257 

(d)  The  Novel 

263 

(e)   Criticism 

266 

Romanticism    . 

269 

(a)   Poetry 

269 

(b)   Prose 

285 

The  Victorian  Era 

291 

(a)  Realism  . 

295 

(6)   Idealism 

301 

LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Esthwaite  Water Frontispiece 

FACING    PAGE 

The  Capture  of  Troj-.     From  a  va.te  in  the  Museum  of  Naples       .  11 

The  Vigil.  After  the  painting  by  John  Petlie  ....  18 
The  Assassination  of  Julius  Csesar.     After  the  painting  by  Georges 

Rochegrosse          ..........  50 

The  Hall  of  the  Middle  Temple,  London 67 

Interior  View  of  Westminster  Abbey 83 

The  Birthplace  of  Burns 100 

Abraham  Lincoln.     From  the  statue  by  A  ugustus  Saint-Gaudens  .  131 

Sir  Galahad.  After  the  painting  by  George  Frederic  Watts  .  .  145 
The  First  Page  of  "Piers  Plowman."     Facsimile  from  the  Ms.  in 

the  Bodleian  Library    .........  177 

The  Canterbury  Pilgrims.     After  the  fresco  painting  by  William 

Blake 206 

Portia.  After  the  painting  by  John  Everett  Millais  .  .  .  233 
Milton  dictating  "  Paradise  Lost."    After  the  painting  by  Michael 

Munkacsy    ...........  245 

A  Literary  Party  at  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'.     After  the  painting  by 

James  Doyle 260 

Isabella  and  the  Pot  of  Basil.      After  the  painting  by  Holman 

Hunt 284 

Thomas  Carlyle.     xifter  the  portrait  by  James  McNeil  Whistler     .  293 


IX 


PART   I 
TYPES   OF   LITERATURE 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  EPIC 


Literature  is  an  interpretation  of  life.  Great  books  are 
not  written  apart  from  the  world  by  authors  who  are  ig- 
norant of  men  and  events.  Shakespeare  and  Milton  and 
Tennyson,  for  example,  were  all  in  close  touch  with  life. 
Each  lived  when  men  were  thinking  hard  and  acting  strenu- 
ously ;  each  gave  expression  to  the  best  that  was  thought  and 
done  in  his  time.  The  plays  of  Shakespeare  reflect  the  vigor 
and  enterprise  of  the  Elizabethan  time;  the  .poems  of 
Milton  express  the  stern  heroism  of  Puritan  England ;  Ten- 
nyson's poetry  exemplifies  the  great  struggle  between  science 
and  faith  in  the  nineteenth  century.  A  masterpiece  of  liter- 
ature is  not  the  result  of  genius  alone.  It  is  the  result  of 
both  a  great  individual  mind  and  a  vigorous  national  life. 
Sometimes,  it  is  true,  the  personality  of  the  author  is  empha- 
sized ;  the  important  thing  seems  to  be,  not  so  much  what  he 
sees  of  Hfe  as  what  he  thinks  about  it.  He  reflects,  he  phil- 
osophizes, he  moralizes.  Yet,  in  the  last  analysis,  his  concern 
is  with  the  "  application  of  ideas  to  life."  But  the  author  is 
not  always  prominent.  In  dramatic  literature,  for  example, 
the  reflections  and  comments  of  the  dramatist  are  rare.  We 
have  a  representation  of  men  and  events.  Life  seems  actu- 
ally to  be  going  on  before  us.  And  this  is  not  true  of  dra- 
matic literature  alone.  It  is  true  of  the  old  popular  ballads 
and  epics,  composed  before  the  days  of  printed  books  when 
literature  was  recited  or  sung,  and  transmitted  from  genera- 

B  1 


2  STUDIES  IX   LITERATURE 

tion  to  generation  by  word  of  mouth.  Novels  and  poems, 
even  essays  and  orations,  represent  life.  Whenever  we  wish 
a  vital  interpretation  of  the  life  of  a  time,  we  go,  if  we  are 
wise,  to  its  literature. 

One  of  the  earliest  literary  forms  was  the  epic,  which 
celebrated  in  verse  the  deeds  of  great  national  heroes.  It 
arose  before  the  days  of  literary  artists  and  printed  books. 
The  author  counted  for  little.  In  the  earliest  popular  form 
such  poems  may  be  said  to  have  had  no  author.  The}'  were 
heroic  stories  which  sang  themselves  out  of  the  life  of  the 
people.  Everybody  knew  them.  No  one  claimed  them  as 
his.  They  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth  and  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  any  one  changing  them  who  wished. 
Each  minstrel  who  recited  them  told  them  in  his  own  way  and 
added  to  them  at  will.  They  grew  from  year  to  year  and 
from  age  to  age  until  they  became,  in  the  end,  great  popular 
epics  —  a  direct  reflection  of  the  national  life. 

THE  ILIAD 

The  story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  is  such  an  epic,  a  picture 
of  life  among  the  prehistoric  Greeks.  The  Trojan  war, 
upon  which  the  story  is  based,  took  place  about  twelve  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ,  near  the  close  of  a  long  and  bril- 
liant period  of  old  Greek  civilization.  At  Mycenae,  on  the 
mainland  of  Greece,  and  on  the  islands,  notably  Ithaca 
and  Crete,  the  archeologists  have  uncovered  strongly  built 
fortresses  and  cities  with  beautiful  palaces  finely  appointed 
and  showing  a  high  degree  of  civilization  as  old  as  that  of 
Egypt.  In  Crete,  three  distinct  cities,  one  above  another, 
have  been  found.  On  the  site  of  Troy  in  Asia  Minor,  Schlie- 
mann  and  Dorpfeld  have  uncovered  nine  distinct  layers  of 
ruins,  called  by  them  the  nine  cities  of  Ilium ;  and  one  of 
these,  the  sixth  from  the  bottom,  has  been  identified  as  the 


THE  EPIC  3 

Troy  of  The  Iliad,  for  the  civilization  there  revealed  \)y  the 
archeologists  is  the  civihzation  that  The  Iliad  portrays. 
But  this  great  era  is  altogether  prehistoric.  The  life  pic- 
tured in  The  Iliad  belongs  three  hundred  years  at  least  before 
the  beginning  of  authentic  history  and  is  separated  from  it 
by  three  centuries  of  barbarism  called  the  Dark  Ages.  Be- 
sides what  archeology  teaches,  we  know  nothing  about  this 
early  period  except  from  the  Homeric  poems  and  from  vague 
tradition.  It  seems  clear,  however,  that  about  eleven  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ,  tribes  of  men  called  the  Dorians 
came  down  from  the  north  and  overthrew  the  older  civili- 
zation; and  that  the  original  inhabitants  were  scattered, 
some  of  them  migrating  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
neighboring  islands,  and  carrying  with  them  their  traditions. 

Among  the  traditions  that  thus  passed  from  the  mainland 
of  Greece  to  Asia  IVIinor  were  stories  about  the  siege  of  Troy, 
which  we  have  in  their  later  form  in  The  Iliad.  Just  how 
these  stories  came  into  their  final  form,  just  who  Homer  was 
and  when  he  lived,  just  the  extent  to  which  the  stories  had 
already  come  together  in  the  formation  of  a  long  epic  before 
Homer  began  to  work  upon  them,  just  how  much  Homer 
changed  the  form  of  the  stories  —  all  these  questions  are 
matters  of  controversy  that  need  not  be  discussed  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  epic  reached  substantially  the  form 
in  which  we  know  it  as  early  as  eight  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before  Christ. 

The  Iliad  consists  of  episodes,  more  or  less  independent, 
about  various  heroes,  as  Diomedes  and  Achilles.  The  largest 
and  most  important  episode  is  "  the  wrath  of  Achilles." 
This  is  a  simple,  straightforward  story  of  the  quarrel  between 
Achilles  and  Agamemnon,  the  prayer  of  Thetis  to  Zeus  for 
glory  for  her  son,  the  defeat  of  the  Greeks,  the  request  to 
Achilles  to  send  Patroclus,  the  arming  of  Patroclus,  his  death 


4,  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

at  the  hands  of  Hector,  the  rescue  of  his  body,  the  bringing 
of  the  news  to  Achilles,  the  reconciliation  of  the  latter  to  his 
chief,  his  exploits  on  the  battle  field,  and  the  vengeance  he 
takes  upon  Hector.  The  exact  relation  of  this  story  to  the 
other  episodes  does  not  concern  us  here.  The  only  significant 
point  is  that  The  Iliad  was  not  composed  as  a  modern  novel, 
for  instance,  is  composed,  or  as  Paradise  Lost  was  composed, 
but  that  it  was  the  outcome  of  a  long  line  of  national  tradition 
and  therefore  represents  not  so  much  the  reflective  thought  of 
a  single  author  as  the  life  of  an  entire  people. 

The  Iliad,  therefore,  is  very  close  to  life ;  a  simple,  direct 
story  of  the  achievements  of  heroes,  with  little  or  no  comment, 
reflection,  and  moralizing  on  the  part  of  an  author.  It  is 
story  rather  than  history,  yet  we  see  there  an  old  and  won- 
derful civilization  reflected.  The  equipment  of  armies,  the 
methods  of  warfare  in  the  attack  and  defense  of  cities,  the 
relations  of  kings  and  chieftains  and  warriors,  the  ideals  of 
family  hfe,  the  conception  of  what  parts  the  gods  play  in 
human  affairs,  the  character  of  the  gods  themselves  and  the 
methods  of  sacrifice  to  them  —  all  these  and  much  besides 
are  presented  in  a  magnificent  moving  picture. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Book  I.  The  Iliad  is  not  a  complete  account  of  the  Tro- 
jan war,  but  merely  an  account  of  certain  episodes  in  it ; 
notably  the  "  wrath  of  Achilles."  How  long  has  the  war  been 
going  on  when  the  story  opens?  (See  Book  II. 0  Make  a 
list  of  the  gods  who  favor  the  Greeks  and  those  who  favor 
the  Trojans.  Why  is  the  epithet  "far-darter"  appropriate  to 
Apollo?  Why  should  Apollo  send  pestilence  rather  than 
some  other  form  of  punishment?     What  are  the  differences 

'  In  making  references  to  texts  of  the  classics,  the  volumes  of  The  Macmil- 
lan  Pocket  Series  have  been  primarily  in  mind. 


THE  EPIC  5 

in  character  between  Achilles  and  Agamemnon?  What 
does  Book  I  tell  about  the  customs  of  warfare  among  the 
Greeks?  Pallas  Athene  is  the  goddess  of  intellect.  The 
better  judgment  of  Achilles  is  thus  personified.  He  is  sup- 
ported throughout  by  Intelligence.  Was  Athene  anything 
more  to  the  Greeks  than  intelligence  personified  by  means  of 
a  capital  letter?  Make  a  collection  of  wise  and  pithy  say- 
ings like  "Whosoever  obeyeth  the  gods,  to  him  they  gladly 
harken."  Make  a  list  of  the  adjectives  applied  to  the  sea. 
Explain  in  your  oa\ti  words  how  the  Greeks  offered  sacrifice. 
What  adjectives  are  applied  to  Zeus,  the  son  of  Cronus? 
Is  Zeus  just  ?  Are  the  gods  really  "  the  happy  gods"  ?  Are 
they  highly  moral  ? 

Book  II.  Does  Zeus  act  in  a  godlike  manner?  Explain 
the  exact  relation  between  the  king  and  his  warriors.  Cite 
passages  to  show  whether  or  not  the  king  was  an  absolute 
ruler?  How  important  was  the  individual  warrior?  To 
what  extent  did  he  have  freedom  of  speech  ? 

Characterize  Odysseus,  citing  passages  in  illustration. 
Distinguish  the  characters  of  Agamemnon,  Achilles,  Odysseus, 
Nestor,  Thersites.  The  Greeks  thought  largely  in  pictures. 
Point  out  the  most  picturesque  passages.  What  is  a  simile  ? 
Point  out  the  most  striking  similes. 

Books  III  and  IV.  Books  III  and  IV  treat  of  individ- 
ual combats  betAveen  the  various  warriors.  They  may  be 
hastily  read  or  even  omitted. 

Book  V.  Explain  the  attitude  of  the  gods  toward  one 
another.  Explain  the  attitude  of  Diomedes  toward  the  gods. 
Notice  that  the  gods,  though  immortal,  are  not  invulnerable. 
What  is  meant  by  "bestriding  a  friend  in  battle"  ? 

Book  VI.  What  was  the  Trojan  idea  of  the  character  of 
Athene?  Indicate  llic  chief  difference  between  ancient  and 
modern  warfare.     (Cf.  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Addison,  par- 


6  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

agraphs  54-55.)  Notice  the  importance  of  hospitality  and 
guest-friendship.  What  influence  did  it  have  upon  warriors 
in  battle  ?  What  was  the  cost  of  a  good  suit  of  armor  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  other  commodities  ? 

Do  the  conditions  of  life  seem  crude  or  refined  ?  Explain. 
Gather  notes  for  a  short  account  of  the  Greek  civilization. 
What  impression  do  you  get  of  Helen  from  her  talk  and  ac- 
tions ? 

What  difference  in  tone  do  you  notice  between  this  book 
and  the  preceding  books?  Is  the  sentiment,  for  instance, 
more  refined  ?  Contrast  Andromache  and  Helen.  (Notice 
how  each  is  employed.)  Point  out  the  finest  passages  of 
pathos  and  explain  why  they  are  admirable.  Contrast 
Hector  and  Paris. 

Book  VU.  By  what  means  is  Hector's  greatness  brought 
out?  Would  the  description  of  the  combat  between  Aias 
and  Hector  be  so  interesting  if  it  were  less  specific,  less  con- 
densed, or  less  rapid?  Describe  the  combat  in  your  own 
words.     Did  the  Greeks  always  burn  their  dead  ? 

Book  MIL  The  eighth  book  may  be  read  rapidly  or 
omitted. 

Book  IX.  Does  the  style  of  Book  IX  seem  more  simple 
or  more  elaborate  than  the  style  of  Book  I  ?  Which  has  the 
greater  number  of  extended  similes?  What  does  the  use 
of  the  adjective  "crooked-counselling"  to  characterize 
Cronus  imply  in  regard  to  the  Greek  religion  ?  Do  Diomedes 
and  Nestcr  speak  fearlessly  and  plainly  to  the  king  ?  Is  the 
king  a  weak  king  ?  Does  he  have  any  more  power  than  that 
of  a  chief  among  warriors  ?  In  what  ways  do  these  primitive 
men  act  like  children?  Does  Odj'^sseus,  in  his  speech  with 
Achilles,  maintain  his  reputation  as  a  clever,  tactful  man? 
Does  this  book  show  more  delicacy  and  refinement  than  the 
others  ?     How  do  Diomedes  and  Odysseus  differ  in  character  ? 


THE  EPIC 


Books  X  to  XV.     Books  X  to  XV  may  be  omitted. 

Book  XVI.  What  are  the  most  stirring  and  graphic 
passages?  Relate  in  your  own  words  the  fight  between 
Patroclus  and  Sarpedon.  What  makes  the  Homeric  ac- 
count so  interesting  and  hfeHke  ?  Why  should  the  Trojans 
be  so  eager  to  recover  the  body  of  Sarpedon  ? 

Point  out  the  most  striking  similes.  Do  they  help  to 
make  the  action  clear  ?  Are  any  of  them  too  elaborate  and 
detailed  ?  What  part  do  the  gods  take  in  the  action  ?  Dis- 
cuss whether  the  battles  are  more  interesting  because  the 
gods  interfere.  What  facts  point  forward  to  something  that 
is  to  happen  later?  Interest  in  how  the  story  is  going  to 
turn  out  is  called  plot  interest. 

Book  XVII.  This  book  may  be  read  rapidly  or  omitted 
altogether.     It  is  not  essential  to  the  main  story. 

Book  XVIII.  Is  the  grief  of  Achilles  unmanly  ?  Discuss. 
Make  a  summary  in  your  o\vn  words  of  the  fortunes  of 
Achilles  up  to  the  slaying  of  Patroclus,  and  then  compare  it 
with  the  summary  put  into  the  mouth  of  Thetis  near  the  end 
of  Book  XVIII.  How  came  Hephaestus  to  be  lame?  De- 
scribe the  armor  of  a  Greek  warrior.  Explain  the  ornamen- 
tation of  Achilles's  shield.  Could  all  the  details  have  been 
placed  upon  a  shield?  Can  description  present  any  facts 
that  sculpture  or  painting  cannot  ?  What  advantage  has  a 
picture  over  a  description  ? 

Book  XIX.  Indicate  passages  in  this  book  and  else- 
where that  show  the  Greek  idea  of  Fate.  To  what  extent 
did  the  Greeks  feel  that  the  gods  were  ever  at  hand  to  con- 
trol the  actions  and  fortunes  of  men  ?  Was  this  believed  to 
be  a  sufficient  excuse  for  blunders  and  follies  ?  What  details 
show  a  knowledge  of  the  awful  realities  of  war  ?  What  are 
the  striking  pictures  in  this  book,  showing  that  "the  poet 
is  a  worker  in  images"  ? 


8  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

Book  XX.  Do  you  see  why  Matthew  Arnold  should 
speak  of  The  Iliad  as  an  example  of  "poetry  in  the  grand 
style"?  What  is  the  difference  between  gods  and  men  as 
the  Homeric  Greek  conceived  them  ?  Discuss  whether  the 
influence  of  the  gods  makes  the  heroism  of  the  warriors  less 
heroic.  Do  you  sympathize  with  Hector  or  with  Achilles? 
Explain  wh,y. 

Book  XXI.  This  book  is  not  essential  to  the  story,  and 
may  therefore  be  omitted. 

Book  XXH.  Discuss  whether  Hector  seems  cowardly? 
Describe  the  fight  in  your  o^vn  words.  Indicate  details 
which  show  the  fighting  to  be  barbarous,  savage  warfare.  Is 
the  vengeance  of  Achilles  greater  than  can  be  justified? 
What  was  the  opinion  of  the  gods  ? 

Book  XXIII.  What  did  the  Greeks  consider  appropriate 
rites  for  the  dead  ?  What  difference  did  it  make  to  the 
dead  whether  the  rites  were  performed  or  not  ?  Why  was  it 
so  terrible  for  the  body  to  be  devoured  by  dogs?  Select 
a  number  of  adjectives  that  seem  to  you  peculiarly  Homeric. 
Are  they  picturesque  epithets?  Do  they  express  salient 
qualities  of  the  objects  described  ? 

What  makes  the  chariot  race  spirited  ?  Review  all  the 
facts  contained  in  The  Iliad  about  (3dysseus. 

Book  XXIV.  Are  we  made  to  sympathize  keenly  ^ith 
the  sorrows  of  Priam  ?  What  facts  show  Priam's  inherent 
nobility  ?  Discuss  whether  sympathy  for  Priam  detracts 
from  admiration  for  Achilles  ? 

Comment  on  the  attitude  of  the  Greeks  toward  death. 
Note  especially  the  conversation  between  Achilles  and  Priam. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Difference  between  Gods  and  Men  in  The  Iliad. 

2.  The  Combat  between  Glaucus  and  Diomedes. 


THE  EPIC  9 

3.  Funeral  Games. 

4.  The  Character  of  Odysseus. 

5.  Some  Characteristics  of  the  Greek  CiviUzation  as  shown  in 
The  Ilia<l. 

6.  Achilles  and  Hector  compared. 

7.  Andromache  and  Helen  compared. 

8.  The  Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache. 

9.  How  the  Greeks  sacrificed  to  the  Gods. 

10.  The  Armor  of  Homeric  Heroes. 

1 1 .  The  Walls  and  Fortresses  of  Homeric  Cities. 

12.  The  Excavations  of  Troy. 

13.  The  Excavations  of  Mycenae. 

THE   MNEID 

The  Mneid  is  not  a  popular  epic  like  The  Iliad.  It  did 
not  develop  gradually  through  a  long  period  of  time.  It  is 
not  the  work  of  many  authors.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  dis- 
tinctly a  literary  epic,  produced  in  a  comparatively  short 
period  by  a  single  author,  Virgil,  who  wrote  with  the  def- 
inite purpose  of  glorifying  the  Roman  people  by  giving  to 
them  an  heroic  genealogy,  and  by  relating  a  thrilling  story 
of  the  founding  of  the  Roman  state.  The  purpose  is 
more  apparent ;  the  plan  of  the  work  is  more  definite  ; 
the  details  are  worked  out  with  a  more  conscious  literary 
skill. 

Virgil,  it  is  true,  imitated  the  manner  of  the  Greek  epics. 
The  first  part  is  like  The  Odyssey;  the  second,  like  The  Iliad. 
The  wanderings  of  ^neas  resemble^  very  closely  the  wander- 
ings of  Odysseus ;  many  of  the  places  visited  are  the  same ; 
reference  is  often  made  to  the  same  legends  and  myths. 
The  fighting  in  Italy  is  much  like  the  fighting  around  Troy ; 
iEneas  and  Turnus  correspond  in  general  to  Achilles  and 
Hector;  there  are  resemblances  between  Pallas  and  Patro- 
clus.     Yet  the  imitation  is  not  slavish.     ^Eneas  has  experi- 


10  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

ences  all  his  own,  and  is  not  the  counter-part  of  either  Odys- 
seus or  Achilles ;  the  incidents  are  developed  with  greater 
wealth  of  detail ;  the  pictures  are  more  elaborate  and  bril- 
liant. The  Iliad  is  like  a  photograph ;  The  Mneid,  like  a 
rich  and  highly  colored  painting. 

Some  passages  in  The  Mneid  are  incomplete,  and  the  end- 
ing is  unsatisfactory,  because  Virgil  was  unable  to  finish 
and  revise  his  work.  Yet  the  poem,  as  a  whole,  is  one  of  the 
most  refined  and  polished  of  all  epics.  The  scenes  are  de- 
scribed with  a  vividness  rarely  equaled ;  and  the  movement 
of  the  events,  though  dignified,  is  swift  and  stirring.  The 
variety  of  interest,  also,  is  remarkable. 

Above  all,  the  poem  reflects  the  genius  of  the  Roman  people 
at  its  best;  the  pride  in  a  glorious  national  tradition,  the 
strength  of  fully  developed  national  ideals,  the  vigor  of  a 
mature  civilization.  When  Virgil  wrote,  Rome  was  at  the 
height  of  her  power.  The  stern  virtues  of  the  republic  had 
not  yet  given  way  to  the  luxurious  vices  of  the  later  empire. 
Danger  from  the  north  had  not  yet  disturbed  the  national 
self-confidence.  The  Roman  spirit  was  both  mature  and 
triumphant.  The  jEneid,  therefore,  though  it  tells  the 
story  of  the  childhood  of  the  nation,  is  the  product  of 
the  nation's  full  maturity  and  strength,  an  interpretation 
of  the  developed  national  life. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Book  I.  Why  does  Virgil  not  start  with  the  beginning  of 
the  wanderings  of  ^Eneas  ?  What  are  the  advantages  and 
the  disadvantages  of  beginning  as  Virgil  does  ?  Is  the  style 
as  simple  and  direct  as  the  style  of  The  Iliad?  Point  out 
the  most  picturesque  passages.  Indicate  a  number  of  well- 
chosen  adjectives.  Explain  how  the  scene  in  the  presence 
of  Dido  is  arranged  to  secure  climax  of  interest.     Is  it  easy 


o. 

03 


3 


(^ 


THE  EPIC  11 

to  picture  the  entire  scene  as  you  read  ?  Does  the  scene 
have  an  artistic  close  ?  Explain.  Show  how  the  author's 
purpose  of  developing  an  heroic  lineage  for  the  Roman  people 
is  introduced.  Keep  in  mind  the  attitude  of  each  god  to- 
wards the  Trojans.  What  reason  has  Juno  to  be  angry 
with  ^neas?  Read  Tennyson's  (Enone  for  an  account  of 
the  judgment  of  Paris. 

Book  II.  The  story  now  reverts  to  the  fall  of  Troy. 
Ordinarily  we  would  rather  read  of  the  future  experiences 
of  iEneas.  But  does  the  interest  lag?  Whenever  a  god  or 
hero  is  mentioned,  recall  his  part  in  The  Iliad.  There  is  a 
famous  statue  of  Laocoon  in  the  Vatican.  Wherein  is  the 
subject  better  for  a  poetic  description  than  for  a  statue  or 
a  picture  ?  Point  out  the  most  striking  and  effective  similes. 
Discuss  whether  the  movement  of  the  story  is  in  harmony 
with  the  subject  matter. 

Does  the  interest  grow  as  the  story  progresses  ?  Explain 
the  clear  unity  of  the  book?  Point  out  some  distinctly 
human  touches  which  make  the  story  seem  real.  What  are 
the  principal  traits  of  Ji^neas's  character?  Where  is  the 
pathos  of  his  recital  most  impressive  ? 

Book  III.  How  many  separate  episodes  are  there  in  this 
book?  Is  there  any  causal  connection  between  them?  Is 
the  book  less  interesting  for  that  reason?  What  has  the 
interest  of  the  gods  in  the  finding  of  a  home  to  do  with  the 
main  purpose  of  the  poem  ?  What  are  the  best  descriptive 
passages  ?  (Give  reasons.)  Explain  how  Scylla  and  Charyb- 
dis  are  personifications  of  natural  phenomena.  Cite  other 
examples  of  the  same  kind  of  personification.  Why  is  the 
interest  all  centered  on  the  Ausonian  land  ?  Read  and  com- 
pare the  adventures  of  Odysseus  with  the  Cyclops  in  Book 
IX  of  The  Odyssey.  Trace  the  wanderings  of  iEneas  on  a 
good  classical  map.     Begin  to  make  a  collection  of  moral 


12  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

reflections  and  wise  sayings  like,  "Cursed  lust  of  gold,  to 
what  dost  thou  not  force  the  heart  of  man?" 

Book  IV.  Note  how  graphic  the  account  is.  Is  the 
picture  of  Fame  (Rumor)  an  appropriate  image  ?  What  are 
the  most  appropriate  adjectives  to  apply  to  Dido?  Point 
out  the  most  striking  and  extended  similes.  What  is  the 
story  of  Hercules  and  the  Hesperides  (see  Classical  Diction- 
ary) ?  Explain  from  history  how  Dido's  curses  and  proph- 
ecies came  true.  Does  this  add  to  the  realistic  impression  of 
the  poem  ?  What  do  you  find  to  admire  in  Dido  ?  Com- 
pare the  structure  of  Books  III  and  IV.  Which  has  the 
more  perfect  unity  ?  Do  they  work  up  to  a  climax  equally 
well  ? 

Book  V.  What  are  the  merits  of  the  account  of  the  boat 
race  ?  What  makes  the  foot  race  and  the  boxing  match  seem 
so  vivid  and  real  ?  Is  the  movement  of  the  narrative  swift 
or  slow  ?  Is  the  vocabulary  specific  or  general  ?  Is  it  ab- 
stract or  concrete  ?  Describe  one  of  the  contests  in  your  own 
words,  trying  to  make  it  as  vivid  and  interesting  as  possible. 
Explain  in  detail  the  difficulty  of  iEneas's  situation.  Explain 
the  picturesque  method  of  describing  the  death  of  Palinurus. 
Arrange  the  entire  book  in  your  mind  as  a  series  of  pictures. 

Book  VI.  Keep  in  mind  the  prophecy  of  the  Sibyl ;  this 
is  Virgil's  way  of  arousing  interest  in  what  is  to  come,  a  de- 
vice of  plot.  Read  the  account  of  the  descent  of  Odysseus 
into  Hades  in  Book  XI  of  The  Odyssey,  and  compare  it  with 
Virgil's  account.  Which  is  the  more  simple  conception  ? 
These  two  accounts  give  the  ideas  of  Hades  that  prevailed 
among  the  Greeks  and  among  the  Romans.  The  northern 
races  had  a  very  different  conception.  Read  JVIatthew 
Arnold's  Balder  Dead,  and  then  write  a  short  report  on  the 
differences  between  the  northern  and  southern  conceptions. 

Where,  in  this  book,  is  the  transmigration  of  souls  treated  ? 


THE  EPIC  13 

For  what  purpose  is  the  doctrine  used  by  the  poet?  What 
has  it  to  do  with  the  main  idea  of  The  Mneid  ? 

Book  \'II.  The  wanderings  of  ^Eneas  are  now  over.  The 
war  for  the  estabUshmcnt  of  the  nation  in  Italy  begins. 
There  is  a  change  from  the  style  of  The  Odyssey  to  the  style 
of  The  Iliad.  Note  the  contrast  in  tone  between  Books  VI 
and  VH.  The  des(;ription  of  the  breaking  out  of  war  is 
strikingly  vivid.  Notice  how  the  hurry  and  confusion,  and 
the  pomp  and  pageantry  of  war  are  portrayed.  Describe 
in  your  own  words  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  trying  to  express 
this  hurry  and  confusion,  and  pageantry  and  pomp.  What 
are  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  book  ?  When  is  the  main 
theme  of  The  Mneid  emphasized  ?  By  what  means  is  the 
glory  of  the  Roman  nation  kept  before  the  mind?  Look 
up  Furies  in  a  classical  dictionary. 

Book  VIII.  Compare  the  shield  of  Achilles  in  Book 
XVIII  of  The  Iliad.  Which  description  do  you  prefer,  and 
why?  What  other  books  have  a  number  of  more  or  less 
independent  episodes?  What  books  have  just  one  incident 
or  situation  elaborately  developed  ?  Which  are  the  most 
interesting?  Are  there  any  touches  of  tenderness  in  this 
book? 

Books  IX  and  X.  Find  parallels  in  The  Iliad  for  the  in- 
cidents of  these  two  books.  To  what  extent  was  Virgil  a 
borrower?  Explain  some  differences  between  ancient  and 
modern  warfare.  Do  the  actions  of  Euryalus  and  Nisus, 
as  they  slay  the  enemy  and  start  off  with  the  booty,  seem 
natural,  considering  the  mission  they  are  on  ?  Are  there 
passages  that  seem  too  horrible  ?  Explain  the  references 
in  the  speeches  of  Venus  and  Juno  in  Book  X. 

Book  XI.  Is  the  description  of  the  bringing  home  of 
Pallas  simple  and  clear,  or  complicated  and  confused  ?  Does 
Evander  act  nobly?     Do  the  expressions  of  sorrow  seem 


14  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

exaggerated  ?  Does  so  much  weeping  and  lamentation  indi- 
cate weakness  of  character  in  the  heroes  ?  Does  Turnus 
make  a  stronger  speech  than  Drances?  (Give  reasons.) 
Is  the  account  of  the  preparation  for  battle  rapid  ?  Is  it 
clear?  Does  it  also  bring  out  hurry  and  confusion?  Give 
the  account  in  your  own  words,  trying  to  illustrate  all  these 
characteristics.     Compare  Turnus  with  Hector. 

Book  XII.  Is  there  any  similarity  between  the  combat  of 
^neas  and  Turnus  and  the  combat  of  Achilles  and  Hector 
in  The  Iliad?  Cite  passages  to  show  which  is  the  simpler 
and  stronger  ?  Which  is  the  clearer  in  outline  ?  Do  you 
feel  the  author  more  consciously  at  work  in  one  than  in  the 
other  ?  (Cite  passages.)  If  one  is  more  interesting,  try  to 
explain  why.  Explain  why  the  ending  of  the  book  is  not 
a  satisfactory  ending  to  The  Mneid  as  a  whole. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  A  Summary  of  The  Mneid  by  Books. 

2.  The  Attitude  of  ^Eneas  toward  his  Father. 

3.  Similarities  between  The  ^iieid  and  The  Iliad. 

4.  The  Character  of  ^Eneas. 

5.  Acliilles  and  iEiieas  compared. 

6.  Hector  and  Turnus  compared. 

7.  The  Most  Interesting  Episode  in  The  Mneid. 

8.  The  Story  of  Carthage. 

9.  Anachronisms  in  The  Mneid. 

10.  Athletic  Games  in  The  Mneid  compared  ^\ath  Athletic 
Games  in  The  Iliad. 

11.  Methods  of  Warfare  in  The  Iliad  and  The  Mneid  compared. 

12.  The  Character  of  Dido. 

13.  Comparison  of  Fate  in  The  Iliad  and  in  The  Mneid. 

14.  The  Element  of  Love  in  The  Iliad  and  in  The  Mneid. 

15.  The  Roman  Religion. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   ROMANCE   AND   THE   NOVEL 

The  two  principal  elements  of  story-telling  are  character 
and  action.  Somebody  must  do  something.  There  must 
be  both  persons  and  events.  In  some  stories,  emphasis  is 
put  upon  the  action.  The  interest  lies  principally  in  what 
takes  place.  The  mind  dwells  more  on  what  the  characters 
do  than  on  what  they  are  or  why  they  act  as  they  do.  The 
characters  are  not  necessarily  unimportant ;  some  of  them 
are  even  historical ;  yet  the  chief  interest  is  in  the  adventures, 
in  the  series  of  thrilling  situations.  We  ask  ourselves  not, 
what  kind  of  people  are  these  ?  but  rather,  what  will  happen 
next  ?  how  will  the  story  turn  out  ?  Furthermore,  the 
events  do  not  always  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  characters 
nor  conform  to  ordinary  experience.  The  scenes  are  often 
far  removed  from  the  conditions  of  everyday  life.  The  whole 
story  is  often  surrounded  with  an  atmosphere  of  superstition 
and  mystery.  A  story  of  this  kind,  rapid  in  movement  and 
full  of  surprising  situations,  is  technically  called  a  romance. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  is  our  representative  writer  of  romance. 
He  was  peculiarly  fitted  both  by  birth  and  by  training  for 
this  kind  of  writing.  His  ancestors  for  generations  had  lived 
the  wild  life  of  the  Border  Country  of  Scotland,  and  their 
names  appear  in  many  a  story  of  adventure  in  chase  and  in 
battle ;  so  that  the  spirit  of  romance  was  in  his  blood.  The 
first  eight  years  of  his  life  were  spent  on  a  sheep 
farm,    the    home    of    his    grandfather,    where    he    listened 

15 


16  STUDIES  /iV  LITERATURE 

to  the  stories  that  had  passed  from  father  to  son 
among  the  peasantry  —  border  tales  and  ballads,  which 
he  soon  learned  by  heart.  As  he  grew  older,  he  de- 
lighted in  making  excursions  through  the  Border  Country 
and  into  the  Highlands,  visiting  old  battle  fields  and  wild 
places  over  which  romance  had  cast  a  spell.  At  the  univer- 
sity, he  neglected  his  regular  work  to  study  the  life  and  lit- 
erature of  the  Middle  Ages,  with  their  charm  of  mystery  and 
superstition.  He  knew  all  the  old  stories  of  knights  who 
fought  in  tournaments  or  wandered  over  the  world  in  search 
of  adventures  with  dragons  and  other  fabulous  monsters. 
He  thought  more  of  Robin  Hood  and  his  merry  outlaws 
than  he  did  of  the  study  of  law,  and  he  finally  gave  up  the 
practice  of  his  profession  for  the  purpose  of  writing  about 
the  romantic  life  that  was  to  him  so  fascinating. 

A  story,  however,  need  not  be  a  romance  of  adventure. 
Sometimes  emphasis  is  placed  not  so  much  upon  the  action 
as  upon  the  analysis  and  development  of  character.  The 
author  tries  to  make  the  actors  in  his  story  as  much  like 
ordinary  men  and  women  as  possible,  to  enter  into  their 
inner  life,  to  realize  their  motives  for  action.  They  are 
allowed  to  do  only  what  real  men  and  women  with  similar 
characteristics  and  motives  would  inevitably  do  under  the 
given  circumstances.  Their  action  must  illustrate  funda- 
mental laws  of  human  life.  The  author  fears  nothing  quite 
so  much  as  being  untrue  to  ordinary  experience.  The  story 
pictures  common  life,  explains  its  meaning,  discusses  its  prob- 
lems.    Such  a  story  is  generally  called  a  novel. 

George  Eliot  is  a  typical  novelist.  In  the  seventeenth 
chapter  of  Adam  Becle  she  speaks  of  her  ideals  and  methods  : 

"I  do  not  hold  it  the  highest  vocation  of  the  novelist  to  repre- 
sent things  as  they  never  have  been  and  never  will  be.  I  might  re- 
fasliiou  life  and  character  entirely  after  ray  own  liking,  and  put  my 


THE   ROMANCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  17 

own  admirablo  opinions  into  their  niouths  on  all  occasions.  But 
it  haj)pons,  on  the  contrary,  that  my  strongest  effort  is  to  avoid 
any  such  arbitrary  picture,  and  to  give  a  faithful  account  of  men 
and  things  as  they  have  mirrored  themselves  in  my  mind.  The 
mirror  is  doubtless  defective;  the* outlines  will  sometimes  be  dis- 
turbed, the  reflection  faint  or  confused ;  but  I  feel  as  much  bound 
to  tell  you  as  precisely  as  I  can  what  that  reflection  is,  as  if  I  were 
in  the  witness  box  narrating  my  exj^erience  on  oath. 

"  So  I  am  content  to  tell  my  simple  story  without  trjingto  make 
things  seem  better  than  they  are ;  dreading  nothing,  indeed,  but 
falsity,  wiiich,  in  spite  of  one's  best  efforts,  there  is  reason  to  dread. 
Falsehood  is  so  easy,  truth  so  difficult.  The  pencil  is  conscious  of 
a  delightful  facihty  in  drawing  a  griffin  —  the  longer  the  claws  and 
the  larger  the  wings  the  better,  but  that  marvelous  faciUty  which  we 
mistook  for  genius  is  apt  to  forsake  us  when  we  want  to  draw  a  real 
unexaggc rated  hon.  Examine  your  words  well,  and  you  will  find 
that  even  where  you  have  no  motive  to  be  false,  it  is  a  very  hard 
thing  to  saj^  the  exact  truth,  even  about  your  ow'n  immediate  feel- 
ings —  much  harder  than  to  say  something  fine  about  them  which 
is  not  the  exact  truth." 

Occasionally  we  find  a  story  Avhich  is,  strictly  speaking, 
neither  a  romance  of  adventure  nor  a  novel  of  everyday  life. 
The  primary  interest  lies  not  in  the  rapidity  of  the  action 
nor  in  the  reality  of  the  characters.  It  lies  rather  in  the 
atmosphere  of  the  marvelous  by  which  the  story  is  sur- 
rounded. Character  and  action  alike  are  steeped  in  mystery 
and  superstition.  Unseen  spiritual  forces  mold  character 
and  determine  events.  The  literary  charm  lies  largely  in  the 
delicacy  with  which  the  imagination  plays  about  the  mj^s- 
teries  of  life.  A  story  with  these  characteristics  might  well 
be  called  a  romance  of  the  spirit. 

Hawthorne  defends  this  kind  of  romance  as  follows : 

"When  a  writer  calls  his  work  a  romance,  it  need  hardly  be  ob- 
served that  he  wishes  to  claim  a  certain  latitude,  both  as  to  its 
c 


18  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

fashion  and  material,  which  he  would  not  have  felt  himself  entitled 
to  assume  had  he  professed  to  be  writing  a  novel.  The  latter  form 
of  composition  is  presumed  to  aim  at  a  very  minute  fidelitj^  not 
merely  to  the  possible,  but  to  the  probable  and  ordinary  course  of 
man's  experience.  The  former  —  while,  as  a  work  of  art,  it  must 
rigidly  subject  itself  to  laws,  and  while  it  sins  unpardonably  so  far 
as  it  may  swerve  aside  from  the  truth  of  the  human  heart  —  has 
fairly  a  right  to  present  that  truth  under  circumstances,  to  a  great 
extent,  of  the  writer's  own  choosing  or  creation.  If  he  thinks  fit, 
he  may  so  manage  his  atmospheric  medium  as  to  bring  out  or 
mellow  the  hghts,  and  deepen  and  enrich  the  shadows  of  the  picture." 

Ivanhoe  is  a  typical  romance  of  adventure ;  Silas  Marner, 

a  typical  novel ;    The  House  of  Seven  Gables,  a  romance  of 

the  spirit. 

IVANHOE 

Among  all  of  Scott's  prose  romances,  twenty-nine  in  num- 
ber, Ivanhoe  is  perhaps  the  favorite.  It  is  a  story  of  medieval 
England  in  the  time  of  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted.  The  date 
of  the  story  is  1194  a.d.,  a  century  and  a  quarter  after  the 
conquest  of  England  by  William  of  Normandy  (1066).  For 
many  years  after  the  conquest,  two  hostile  races  lived  in 
England  side  by  side.  The  Normans  were  the  ruling  class. 
They  occupied  the  positions  of  influence  in  both  church  and 
state,  and,  as  feudal  vassals  of  the  king,  held  most  of  the  large 
landed  estates.  The  Saxons,  on  the  other  hand,  were,  for 
the  most  part,  serfs  or  small  freeholders,  despised  and  op- 
pressed by  their  proud  Norman  conquerors.  There  was 
much  bitter  feeling  between  the  two  races.  They  did  not 
often  intermarry.  They  did  not  even  speak  the  same  lan- 
guage. Norman-French  was  the  language  of  high  society; 
Saxon,  the  language  of  common  life.  Ivanhoe  deals  with  — 
in  fact,  may  be  said  to  center  around  —  the  hostile  relations 
of  these  two  races. 


Pi 


o 

1-5 


a 


cs 

a. 


THE   ROMAXCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  19 

Ivanhoe,  however,  is  not  a  careful  historical  study  of  the 
time  of  Richard  I.  The  details  of  Richard's  return  to  Eng- 
land do  not  represent  the  facts.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
Robin  Hood  was  a  contemporary  of  Richard.  The  chivalry 
which  Scott  pictures  belongs  to  the  fourteenth  century,  not 
to  the  twelfth.  The  very  central  situation,  the  opposition 
between  the  Normans  and  the  Saxons,  had  largely  changed  by 
Richard's  time.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Scott  has  telescoped 
the  life  of  three  or  four  centuries.  He  himself  wrote  in  the 
Dedicatory  Epistle : 

"  I  am  conscious  that  I  shall  be  found  still  more  faulty  in  the 
tone  of  keeping  and  costume,  by  those  who  may  be  disposed  rigidly 
to  examine  my  tale  with  reference  to  the  manner  of  the  exact 
period  in  which  my  actors  flourished.  It  may  be  that  I  have 
introduced  little  that  can  positively  be  termed  modern;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  extremely  probable  that  I  have  confused  the 
manners  of  two  or  three  centuries,  and  introduced,  during  the 
reign  of  Richard  the  First,  circumstances  appropriated  to  a  period 
either  considerably  earlier  or  a  good  deal  later  than  that  era." 

Ivanhoe,  therefore,  is  not  a  history  but  a  story,  a  romance 
of  a  distant  time  when  life  was  unsettled  and  adventurous ; 
not  a  photograph  of  life  at  any  exact  moment,  but  a  composite 
picture  of  the  entire  Middle  Ages.  Or,  rather,  it  is  a  view 
from  a  distance,  where  the  general  impression  is  more  sig- 
nificant than  the  exact  details.  Scott  is  concerned  with 
medieval  life  as  a  whole.  He  would  represent  to  our  imag- 
ination the  pageantry  and  pomp  of  chivalry  and  illustrate 
its  spirit  of  adventure.  This  he  does  in  a  very  graphic  and 
spirited  way.     Ivanhoe  is  a  typical  romance. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Chapter  I.     Scott  begins  by  explaining  the  setting  of  his 
story.     Sometimes  authors  begin  at  some  interesting  point 


20  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

that  rightfully  belongs  in  the  middle  of  the  story.     Compare 
The  Odyssey  and  The  jEneid. 

Wamba  is  one  of  the  professional  fools  so  common  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  These  fools  were  not  usually  weak-minded 
people  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  were  often  very  witty,  and  were 
retained  by  kings  and  nobles  to  make  fun  for  the  family. 
They  were  allowed  to  speak  frankly,  and  often  made  very 
pointed  remarks,  which  would  have  given  offense  if  made 
by  any  one  else.  Point  out  resemblances  between  the  medi- 
eval fool  and  the  modern  circus  clown.  Try  to  make  a 
mental  picture  of  the  characters  when  they  are  introduced. 
Consult  a  map  as  you  read.  (For  a  special  map  relating  to 
Ivanhoe,  see  A  Literary  and  Historical  Atlas  of  Europe,  pub- 
lished in  Everyman's  Library.) 

Chapter  II.  What  is  a  palmer  ?  Why  so  called?  Watch 
for  any  hints  that  this  man  is  not  really  a  palmer.  What 
information  is  brought  out  by  the  conversation  between  the 
Prior  and  the  Templar?  Notice  how  the  bitter  feeling  be- 
tween the  Normans  and  the  Saxons  is  dwelt  upon. 

Chapter  III.  Cedric  is  very  carefully  introduced.  He 
must,  therefore,  be  an  important  character.  Get  a  clear 
picture  of  him  in  your  mind.  What  rank  did  a  franklin 
hold  in  the  society  of  the  time  ?  What  is  suggested  about 
the  feeling  of  Cedric  and  Rowena  toward  Cedric 's  son  ? 

Chapter  V.  This  cliapter  closes  the  first  stage  of  the 
action.  All  the  details  of  the  first  five  chapters  work  toward 
this  climax.  Study  particularly  Chapters  III,  IV,  and  V, 
which  develop  the  scene  in  the  hall  of  Cedric.  The  sequence 
is  important :  (1)  the  description  of  the  Saxon  hall;  (2)  the 
introduction  of  Cedric  ;  (3)  a  conversation  iirejiaring  for  the 
entrance  of  the  Abbot  and  the  Templar ;  (4)  the  reference 
to  Cedric's  son,  made  emphatic  by  its  position  at  the  end  of 
the  chapter ;  (5)  the  entrance  of   the  Abbot,  the  Templar, 


THE   ROMANCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  21 

and  their  retinues ;  (6)  the  entrance  of  Lady  Rowena ;  (7)  the 
entrance  of  the  Jew ;  (8)  the  final  situation  in  which  the 
Palmer  and  the  Templar  are  brought  into  violent  opposition. 
This  is  plot  in  a  simple  form,  an  incident  or  situation  gradu- 
ally unfolding  itself,  arousing  expectation  and  increasing 
the  interest  as  it  develops.  Is  the  order  the  natural  order 
of  climax  ? 

Not  only  is  this  final  situation  the  culmination  of  the 
first  five  chapters ;  it  also  starts  a  new  thread  of  story  and 
looks  forward  to  a  second  climax.  Such  is  the  usual  plot 
method  of  romance  —  a  series  of  situations  each  leading 
up  to  the  next. 

Chapter  VI.  What  hints  in  this  chapter  suggest  the 
identity  of  the  Palmer  ? 

Chapter  VII.  What  do  you  learn  here  of  the  character 
(1)  of  Prince  John?  (2)  of  Athelstane?  (3)  of  Cedric? 
How  do  the  actions  of  each  illustrate  his  character  ?  Begin 
to  gather  material  about  the  treatment  of  Jews,  and  add  to 
your  information  from  subsequent  chapters. 

Chapter  VIII.  This  chapter  contains  the  second  climax. 
How  was  the  first  climax  a  preparation  for  this  ?  Read  aloud 
the  account  of  the  tournament.  Describe  the  encomiter  in 
your  own  words.  What  effect  is  produced  by  the  delay  in 
the  tournament  ?  For  a  modified  form  of  the  tournament 
still  surviving  in  the  South,  see  the  account  in  John  Fox,  Jr.'s 
A  Knight  of  the  Cumberland.  Fox's  account  is  based  on 
facts.  Are  the  words  Scott  uses  specific  or  general  ?  What 
effect  is  thus  produced  ? 

Chapter  X.  How  do  you  account  for  the  actions  of 
Rebecca  ? 

Chapter  XI.  What  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  in  the 
development  of  the  story?  Look  up,  in  any  good  history 
of   English   literature,  the  s^tory  of    Robin   Hood   and   his 


22  STUDIES  IN   LITERATURE 

famous  band  of  outlaws ;  and,  as  you  go  on  with  the  reading 
of  Ivanhoe,  note  any  points  of  resemblance  between  Scott's 
outlaws  and  Robin  Hood's  band. 

Chapter  XII.  Let  no  fact  about  the  Black  Sluggard 
escape  notice.  When  did  you  first  feel  certain  that  the 
Palmer,  the  Disinherited  Knight,  and  Ivanhoe  are  one  and 
the  same  person  ?  Go  back  and  trace  all  the  hints  that  led 
to  the  discovery.  To  conceal  the  identity  of  a  character 
and  thus  arouse  curiosity  about  him  is  one  of  the  ways  of 
increasing  the  plot  interest. 

Chapter  XIII.  Why  is  the  yeoman,  Locksley,  so  often 
brought  into  prominence  ? 

Chapter  XIV.  What  has  this  chapter  to  do  with  the 
development  of  the  story  ?  How  does  the  chapter  illustrate 
climax  ? 

Chapter  XV.  The  author  is  preparing  his  third  situation. 
What  were  the  first  two  ?  What  events  previously  related 
have  a  bearing  on  this  new  situation  ? 

Chapters  XVI  and  XVII.  These  chapters  contain 
Scott's  version  of  an  old  story  called  The  Kyng  and  the  Her- 
mite.  Why  does  he  introduce  it  here  ?  Look  up  all  refer- 
ences to  the  Bible. 

Chapter  XIX.  Who  is  the  sick  man  in  the  litter  ?  Why 
is  his  identity  not  revealed  ?  Why  do  Cedric  and  Rowena 
show  no  curiosity  ? 

Chapter  XX.  How  are  the  persons  who  take  part  in  the 
siege  of  the  castle  brought  together  ?  Point  out  how  they 
have  all  been  made  to  sympathize  with  the  persons  confined 
in  the  castle.  How  soon  can  you  discover  the  identity  of 
the  Black  Knight?  Trace  all  the  hints  which  lead  to  the 
discovery. 

Chapter  XXI.  What  contrast  in  character  between 
Cedric  and  Athelstane  is  brought  out  by  their  conversation  ? 


THE    ROMANCE    AND    THE   NOVEL  23 

Chapter  XXII.  Do  you  admire  the  Jew  because  he  is 
noble,  or  merely  pity  him  because  the  Norman  is  inhumanly 
cruel  ?  Explain  how  the  Jew's  feelings  are  graduallj-  wrought 
up  to  a  passionate  climax. 

Chapter  XXIII.  Does  the  last  page  and  a  half  seem  out 
of  place  in  the  text  ?  If  you  were  the  author,  where  would 
you  put  this  material  ? 

Chapter  XXIV.  Whom  do  you  admire  the  more, 
Rebecca  or  Rowena  ?  Explain  why.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  referring  to  the  bugle-call  at  the  climax  of  each  of  the 
scenes  in  the  last  four  chapters  ? 

Chapter  XXV.  What  is  the  effect  of  a  half-comic  chal- 
lenge in  a  story  so  serious  ? 

Chapter  XXVII.  Good  plotting  often  requires  that  the 
events  be  prepared  for.  For  what  is  the  scene  between 
Cedric  and   Ulrica  a  preparation  ? 

Chapters  XXIX,  XXX,  XXXI.  Study  carefully  the 
culmination  of  the  third  stage  in  the  development  of  the 
story.  It  is  more  complicated  than  either  of  the  earlier 
climax  situations,  but  all  the  elements  of  the  plot  are  skill- 
fully adjusted.  Is  there  any  artistic  advantage  in  describing 
the  assault  in  Chapter  XXIX  from  a  single  point  of  view  ? 
What  is  the  effect  of  so  much  specific  detail  ?  Is  the  move- 
ment brisk  or  slow?  Find  places  where  the  effect  of  the 
scene  upon  Rebecca  is  made  to  intensify  the  reader's  interest. 
Explain  the  dramatic  climax  of  Chapter  XXX.  Of  what 
action  earlier  in  the  book  does  the  Black  Knight's  whispering 
to  De  Bracy  remind  you  ? 

Chapter  XXXII.  A  master  of  plot  makes  events  come 
about  in  a  natural  way.  Is  the  rescue  of  the  Jew  so  man- 
aged? 

Chapter  XXXIV.  A  new  situation  is  being  prepared. 
Notice  how  it  grows  out  of  the  preceding  situation.     Stories 


24  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

often  contain  more  than  one  element  of  plot.  Sometimes 
two  or  three  enter,  cross  and  recross  one  another,  or  are 
woven  together  into  a  plot  pattern,  just  as  the  threads  of  a 
tapestry  are  worked  into  figures.  Pick  out  the  story  threads 
and  explain  how  they  are  woven  together. 

Chapter  XXX\'.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  talk  about 
Beaumanoir  ? 

Chapter  XXX\^II.  Explain  the  reasons  why  Bois- 
Guilbert  takes  up  arms  against  Rebecca's  cause. 

Chapter  XL.  How  does  the  author  prepare  for  Ivanhoe's 
recovery  in  time  to  fight  for  Rebecca?  Why  does  Scott 
make  Wamba  the  one  to  blow  the  bugle  ? 

Chapter  XLII.  Is  Athelstane's  reappearance  sufficiently 
prepared  for,  or  does  it  seem  improbable  and  unreasonable  ? 

Chapter  XLIII.  Why  is  Ivanhoe  made  to  win  by  chance 
rather  than  by  prowess  ? 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Treatment  of  the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  depicted  in 
Ivanhoe. 

2.  Robin  Hood. 

3.  Rebecca  and  Rowena. 

4.  The  Trial  of  Rebecca. 

5.  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted. 

6.  The  Iviiights  Templars. 

7.  Thackeray's  Continuation  of  Ivanhoe  in  his  Rebecca  and 
Rowena. 

8.  Brian  de  Bois-Guilbert. 

9.  A  Description  of  the  Storming  of  the  Castle  of  Torquilstone. 

SILAS   MARKER 

Silas  Marner  is  one  of  the  best  of  George  Eliot's  novels, 
and  thoroughly  illustrates  her  theories  of  the  novelist's  art. 
The  author  has  not  chosen  unusual  characters,  and  put  them 


THE    ROMANCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  25 

in  a  remote  place  and  time.  The  story  is  a  story  of  modern 
life  in  the  midland  country  of  England,  where  George  Eliot 
lived  for  many  years,  and  where  she  had  an  intimate  personal 
acquaintance  with  people  very  like  those  presented  in  the 
book.  Moreover,  emphasis  is  placed  upon  chai^acter  rather 
than  upon  plot.  To  appreciate  Silas  Marner,  one  must 
study  the  nature  of  the  characters,  understand  the  circum- 
stances in  which  they  are  placed,  and  realize  how  the  events 
happen  just  as  they  do,  because  characters  of  that  kind 
under  the  given  circumstances  could  not  well  act  otherwise. 
This  nov(>l  is  not  a  mere  pfiotograph  of  life ;  it  is  an  inter- 
pretation. The  point  of  view  of  the  author  is  not  objective 
and  impersonal.  We  are  not  allowed  to  look  upon  the  events 
as  upon  a  pageant  which  is  intended  to  explain  itself.  Tlie 
author  must  needs  interpret.  She  insists  upon  explaining 
the  motives  which  control  conduct,  and  upon  making  clear 
that  the  events  happen,  not  because  the  author  so  wills  it, 
but  because  they  must  so  happen  in  the  very  nature  of  things. 
Silas  Marner,  as  the  author  carefully  explains,  illustrates  the 
law  of  life  that  "  whatsoever  a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he  also 
reap."  It  shows  how  a  person,  quite  shut  out  from  life  by 
bitter  neglect,  is,  through  the  agency  of  a  little  child,  brought 
again  into  natural  and  sympathetic  relations  with  other 
human  beings.  (Jeorge  Eliot  is  especially  interested  in  what 
goes  on  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  her  characters;  and 
unless  the  reader  also  can  become  interested  in  these  things, 
he  will  find  much  of  the  book  slow  and  stu])itl.  lie  who  cares 
only  for  the  events,  and  expects  the  story  to  move  as  briskly 
as  a  romance,  will  be  disappointed.  Let  him  rather  question 
the  truth  of  the  action.  Do  the  characters  think  and  act 
naturally  ?  Are  they  right  or  wrong  ?  What  makes  them 
think  and  act  as  they  do?  Are  they  made  to  suffer  the 
natural  consequences  of  their  blunders  and  their  sins? 


26  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Chapter  I.  The  methods  of  George  EHot  should  be  com- 
pared at  every  stage  with  those  of  Scott.  The  difference 
appears  at  once.  Scott  is  eager  to  make  a  picture,  to  show 
externals.  George  Eliot  seeks  the  very  heart  of  her  charac- 
ters for  the  motives  of  action.  She  tries  to  bring  her  readers 
into  sympathy  with  innermost  feelings  and  thoughts.  Her 
ability  to  put  herself  in  the  place  of  another  is  also  manifest. 
She  can  be  the  peasant  with  all  his  limitations  and  supersti- 
tions, and  can  see  Silas  Marner  from  the  peasant's  point 
of  view.  Her  method  in  bringing  out  character  should  be 
carefully  noted  —  the  peasant's  view  of  Silas,  followed  by  her 
own  careful  explanation  of  the  real  nature  of  the  man  and 
of  the  circumstances  of  his  life  which  had  helped  to  fashion 
his  character.  The  method  is  both  descriptive  and  analyti- 
cal. What  has  the  false  accusation  and  condemnation  of 
Silas  to  do  with  the  plot  ?  Notice  the  author's  tendency  to 
philosophize ;  the  facts  of  her  story  lead  her  constantly  to 
make  general  reflections  on  life  and  character. 

Chapter  II.  George  Eliot  is  able  to  put  herself  in  a 
miser's  place,  and  think  as  he  does  about  money.  This 
power  of  putting  one's  self  in  the  place  of  another,  of  thinking 
his  thoughts  and  living  his  life,  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  creative 
writing ;  it  is  also  one  of  the  secrets  of  intelligent  reading, 
by  which  we  are  able  to  enlarge  our  experience  through  books, 
and  also  to  find  the  secret  of  successful  dealing  with  men  in 
real  life.  Chapters  I  and  II  are  introductory ;  they  estab- 
lish a  definite  situation  and  certain  moral  conditions  which 
are  the  starting  point  of  the  story.  Silas  Marner  is  a  man 
seemingly  shut  off  from  all  real  contact  and  sympathy  with 
his  fellows.  The  rest  of  the  book  will  show  how  such  a 
person  can  be  redeemed  and  his  character  developed.     Why 


THE   ROMANCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  27 

does  the  author  introduce  the  incident  in  regard  to  the 
pitcher?  George  EUot's  philosophical  tendencies  lead  her 
to  use  many  unfamiliar  words.  Look  them  up  in  a  diction- 
ary, and  so  enlarge  your  vocabulary. 

Chapter  III.  This  chapter  brings  in  a  new  plot  element. 
There  are  two  stories,  the  Marner  story  and  the  Cass  story. 
Note  how  these  stories  go  on  side  by  side,  and  watch 
for  points  of  contact.  Make  a  note  of  the  chapters  which 
treat  the  Marner  story  only ;  the  Cass  story  only ;  and 
both  together.  Ask  yourself  if  one  is  subordinate  to  the 
other. 

In  this  chapter,  character  is  brought  out,  not  so  much  by 
description  and  analysis  as  by  letting  the  person  talk,  i.e., 
by  dialogue.  Effective  dialogue  should  reveal  the  character 
of  the  speakers  and  at  the  same  time  advance  the  story. 
Does  this  dialogue  do  so  ?  Notice  how  skillfully  the  author 
is  able  to  get  inside  of  Godfrey's  mind  and  analyze  it.  What 
is  the  great  weakness  of  Godfrey's  character  ? 

Chapter  IV.  In  this  chapter,  character  is  brought  out 
not  so  much  by  description  or  by  dialogue  as  by  action. 
Find  further  examples  of  this  method  of  portraying  character. 
Why  did  George  Eliot  not  have  Dunstan  give  up  Wildfire 
when  the  bargain  was  struck  ?  Do  Dunstan's  actions  grow 
out  of  his  character  ?  Is  he,  for  instance,  a  person  who  might 
be  expected  to  steal,  and  does  the  author  show  carefully 
the  mental  process  by  which  Dunstan  brought  himself  to 
commit  the  act  ?  Where  is  the  stealing  of  Marner's  money 
first  hinted  at  ? 

Chapter  V.  Explain  how  passion  is  here  portrayed 
through  action.  Get  the  situation  clearly  in  mind  and  ivy 
to  enter  into  it  as  sympathetically  as  George  Eliot  does. 

Chapters  VI  and  VII.  The  scene  at  the  Rainbow  is  a 
good  example  of  George  Eliot's  tendency  to  deal  with  actual 


28  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

life.  This  conversation  is  justly  famous.  The  people  are 
real  country  people  ;  their  characters  are  well  distinguished ; 
and  they  talk  their  proper  provincial  dialect  —  a  dialect  of 
which  George  Eliot  was  master.  Distinguish  each  char- 
acter by  an  appropriate  adjective.  What  has  this  chapter 
to  do  with  the  plot?  What  do  you  understand  by  "dra- 
matic "  ?  Do  you  see  how  this  is  a  very  dramatic  way  of  an- 
nouncing the  robbery  of  Marner  ?  Be  on  the  watch  for  other 
dramatic  scenes.  Mark  the  beginning  of  the  process  by 
which  Marner  gets  back  into  sympathetic  relations  with  his 
fellow-men.  Note  any  humorous  touches.  Are  the  details 
arranged  to  lead  up  to  a  climax  ? 

Chapter  VIII.  What  information  is  here  given  regard- 
ing the  character  of  Godfrey  Cass  ?  W^hat  method  is  used  ? 
The  first  part  of  the  chapter  is  an  admirable  example  of  how 
the  minds  of  ordinary  villagers  work.  Can  you  find  flaws 
in  their  reasoning  ? 

Chapter  IX.  What  does  this  chapter  tell  us  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  Squire  ?  What  methods  are  used  ?  Does  the 
chapter  serve  any  other  purpose  ? 

Chapter  X.  Explain  Mr.  Macey's  characteristic  lack 
of  tact.     What  is  tact  ?     Why  is  Mrs.  Winthrop  introduced  ? 

Chapter  XI.  Notice  that  the  New  Year's  party  is 
worked  out  in  very  careful  detail  not  particularly  for  story 
purposes  —  for  the  story  movement  here  is  very  slow  —  but 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  nice  discrimination  in  the  study 
of  character  and  for  the  purpose  of  interpreting  life.  There 
is  much  conversation  here.  Compare  it  with  Chapter  VI  to 
see  if  there  is  a  difference  in  language  corresponding  to  the 
difference  in  social  condition  of  the  two  companies.  Deter- 
mine some  of  the  requirements  of  good  conversation  ?  Ex- 
plain, in  clear  language,  your  opinion  of  Nancy,  citing  pas- 
sages to  support  your  idea. 


THE    ROMANCE    AND    THE   NOVEL  29 

Chapter  XII.  Notice  the  striking  contrast  between 
Chapters  XI  and  XII.  How  has  Chapter  XII  been  prepared 
for  ?  What  use  is  made  of  the  fact  that  Silas  is  subject  to 
catalepsy?  Why  is  his  eyesight  made  defective?  Do  the 
events  of  this  chapter  seem  as  inevitable  as  the  other  events 
of  the  book  ? 

Chapter  XIII.  In  a  good  novel,  the  action  should  arise 
inevitably  out  of  the  (character  of  the  persons  concerned. 
This  is  saitl  to  be  one  of  George  Eliot's  great  merits.  From 
what  you  have  learned  of  Godfrey's  character,  could  you 
have  predicted  his  action  here?  (Give  reasons.)  Is  he  a 
moral  coward?  (Discuss.)  Notice  how  the  human  sym- 
pathies of  Silas  have  been  aroused.  Why  was  the  child 
made  to  have  golden  hair  ? 

Chapter  XIV.  This  chapter  is  important  because  it 
treats  very  directly  with  the  central  theme  of  the  book,  the 
bringing  back  of  Silas  into  sympathy  with  the  human  world. 
George  Eliot's  text  seems  to  be,  "A  little  child  shall  lead 
them."  Notice  how  she  brings  out  the  point  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter.  Do  the  events  here  seem  to  you  real  and 
natural  ?     (Explain.) 

Chapter  XV.  What  is  your  opinion  of  Godfrey's  con- 
duct? Is  he  trifling  with  his  conscience?  (Give  reasons.) 
If  the  story  is  true  to  human  experience,  must  sorrow  be 
brought  upon  him  for  his  moral  wc^akness?  What,  in  your 
opinion,  would  have  been  the  right  thing  for  Godfrey  to  do  ? 
From  your  knowledge  of  the  characters,  can  you  predict 
what  would  have  happened  if  Godfrey  had  acknowledged 
the  child  as  his,  and  had  taken  it  home  with  him?  What 
attitude  would  Nancy  have  taken  ?  How  would  that  action 
on  his  part  have  interfered  with  the  theme  of  the  book  ? 

Chapter  XVI.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  a  consider- 
able time  elapse  ?    Tell  what  has  taken  place  in  Silas  Marner's 


30  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

condition  during  the  time.  How  did  you  find  it  out? 
Where  is  there  a  hint  that  his  money  will  be  found  ?  Point 
out  from  the  book  other  cases  of  foreshadowing.  The  care- 
ful detail  with  which  this  and  similar  chapters  are  written 
can  be  understood  only  when  you  keep  in  mind  that  the 
theme  of  the  book  is  the  development  of  Marner's  character. 

Chapter  XVII.  Have  you  the  same  opinion  of  Nancy 
that  Godfrey  expresses?  If  not,  what  is  your  opinion? 
How  would  she  have  acted  had  Godfrey  told  her  the  truth 
about  Eppie  ?  Godfrey  is  now  beginning  to  feel  the  inevi- 
table results  of  his  misconduct  and  moral  weakness.  Go 
back  and  trace  in  the  fortunes  of  Godfrey  the  way  in  which 
the  author  works  out  the  text,  "Whatsoever  a  man  soweth, 
that  shall  he  also  reap."  How  does  this  chapter  prepare  for 
the  next  ? 

Chapter  XVIII.  This  chapter  is  intensely  dramatic, 
yet  there  is  almost  no  action.  The  tragedy  lies  in  the  play 
of  character  upon  character,  passion  upon  passion,  all  ruled 
by  an  inevitable  fate.  The  situation  is  not  physical,  but 
mental,  moral,  spiritual.  In  this,  George  Eliot  shows  a 
power  very  different  from  the  power  of  story-telling  merely. 
She  shows  that  she  can  appreciate  and  interpret  the  deepest 
experiences  of  the  mind  and  heart.  Could  you  have  pre- 
dicted Nancy's  attitude  ?  Study  the  l)ook  in  comparison 
with  Ivanhoe  until  you  see  clearly  the  difference  between  a 
story  of  adventure  and  an  interpretation  of  life. 

Chapter  XIX.  What  makes  Godfrey  such  a  blunderer  ? 
Is  it  not  partly  at  least  because  he  is  unable  to  look  at  things 
from  any  other  point  of  view  than  his  own  ?  How  many 
people  of  your  acquaintance  have  this  power  of  putting  them- 
selves in  the  place  of  others  and  looking  at  things  from  their 
point  of  view  ?  Notice  how  careful  the  author  is  to  impress 
her  idea  that  men  cannot  get  away  from  the  results  of  their 


THE    ROMANCE   AND    THE    NOVEL  31 

l)lunders  and  their  sins.     Wherein  is  the  scene  "beautiful 
und  simple  and  pathetic  "  ? 

Chapter  XX.  Make  clear  by  details  and  examples  the 
following  comparison  between  Ivanhoe  and  Silas  Marner. 

1 .  Ivanhoe  puts  the  emphasis  on  plot ;  Silas  Marner,  on 
character. 

2.  In  Ivanhoe  the  characters  exist  for  the  sake  of  the  plot ; 
in  Silas  Marner  the  events  grow  out  of  the  characters. 

3.  Ivanhoe  gives  us  a  picture  of  the  outward  shows  of  life ; 
it  deals  with  pageantry.  Silas  Marner  analyzes  the  motives 
and  issues  of  conduct. 

4.  The  movement  of  Ivanhoe  is  more  rapid  than  that  of 
Silas  Marner. 

Classify,  according  to  these  distinctions,  some  of  the 
stories  whicli  you  have  read ;  e.g.,  Treasure  Island,  Gulliver's 
Travels,  Adam  Bede,  Vanity  Fair.  If  George  Eliot  had  been 
writing  a  romance  instead  of  a  novel,  how  would  she  have 
made  Silas  Marner  end  ? 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Two  Threads  of  Plot  in  Silas  Marner. 

2.  Dramatic  Passages  in  Silas  Marner. 

3.  George  Eliot  as  a  Writer  of  Dialogue. 

4.  How  Silas  tried  to  discipline  Eppie. 

5.  Methods  of  portrajing  Character  in  Silas  Marner. 

6.  How  George  Eliot's  Early  Life  fitted  her  to  write  about  the 
Middle  Class. 

7.  Godfrey's  Great  Mistake. 

THE  HOUSE  OF  SEVEN  GABLES 

The  House  of  Seven  Gables  is  a  romance,  but  not  a  ro- 
mance of  adventure  pure  and  simple.  Characteristics  of 
the  novel  appear.  The  story  has  a  moral  purpose ;  the  plot 
movement  is  slow ;   emphasis  is  often  put  on  the  analysis 


32  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

of  character.  Yet  the  final  effect  of  the  story  is  romantic. 
The  characters  are  unusual  and  are  seen  through  a  romantic 
mist.  A  "  legend  from  an  epoch  now  gray  in  the  distance 
is  prolonged  into  our  own  broad  daylight,"  in  order  "  to 
mellow  the  lights  and  deepen  and  enrich  the  shadows  of  the 
picture."  A  "  slight,  delicate,  and  evanescent  flavor  of  the 
marvelous "  is  given  to  the  events ;  so  that  these  events, 
though  not  rapid  and  adventurous,  develop  a  clear  romance 
of  the  spirit  quite  distinct  from  the  story  of  common  life. 
Hawthorne's  imaginative  point  of  view  belongs  distinctly  to 
romance,  and  this  is  what  gives  character  and  color  to  the 
story. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Chapter  I.  In  the  preface,  Hawthorne  says  the  purpose 
of  his  story  is  to  show  "the  truth  that  the  wrong-doing  of 
one  generation  lives  into  the  successive  ones,  and,  divesting 
itself  of  every  temporary  advantage,  becomes  a  pure  and  un- 
controllable mischief."  Where  in  Chapter  I  is  this  theme 
first  stated?  Indicate  the  various  passages  by  which  the 
theme  is  emphasized  and  kept  before  the  mind. 

Explain,  by  reference  to  specific  passages,  how  the  myste- 
rious and  supernatural  atmosphere  is  produced.  When 
Hawthorne  wrote,  witchcraft  was  no  longer  believed  in,  but 
the  effect  of  former  belief  was  still  in  the  blood.  Notice  how 
Hawthorne,  without  expressing  the  belief,  gets  the  emotional 
and  imaginative  effect  of  the  belief.  How  is  the  old  house 
made  mysterious  and  uncanny?  Cite  passages.  Does 
Hawthorne  by  his  statement  leave  any  doubt  that  the  im- 
prisoned Pyncheon  was  the  murderer  of  his  uncle  ?  Why  is 
the  son  of  Maule,  the  wizard,  made  to  help  l)uild  the  house  ? 
What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Maule  family  ? 

Chapter  II.     Explain  Hawthorne's  method  of  introduc- 


THE   ROMANCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  33 

ing  characters.  Show  hoAv  he  emphasizes  the  thoughts  and 
emotions.  Is  the  character  work  more  subtle  and  deHcate 
than  the  Avork  of  Walter  Scott  ?  Notice  Hawthorne's  tend- 
ency to  make  general  reflections  upon  life ;  e.g., 

"In  thit^  republican  country,  amid  the  fluctuating  waves  of  our 
social  life,  somebody  is  always  at  the  drowning-poiut." 

Indicate  other  passages  of  this  sort.  Notice  carefully  the 
characteristics  of  the  miniature  which  Hepzibah  prizes. 
Watch  for  the  original  of  it  in  the  story.  Why  is  the  main 
room  of  the  house  so  carefully  described? 

Chapter  III.  Find  further  illustrations  of  Hawthorne's 
tendency  to  make  general  reflections  about  life.  Cite  humor- 
ous passages  ?  Can  you  always  decide  easily  whether  a  pas- 
sage is  humorous  or  pathetic  ?  Is  the  main  interest  in  the 
story  or  in  the  characters  ?  Why  is  the  incident  of  the  copper 
coin  the  central  and  most  significant  incident  in  the  chapter  ? 

Chapter  IV.  Hawthorne  has  a  way  of  inserting  short 
passages  which  look  forward  to  some  character  or  event 
to  be  introduced  later.  In  Chapter  II,  when  mention  is 
made  of  Hepzibah 's  determination  to  open  the  penny-shop, 
we  are  told  :  "She  might  have  held  back  a  little  longer;  but 
another  circumstance,  not  yet  hinted  at,  had  somewhat 
hastened  her  decision."  In  the  present  chapter,  Uncle 
Venner  says,  "When  do  you  expect  him  home?"  and  at  the 
end  of  the  chapter,  after  Phoebe  has  arrived,  Hepzibah  says, 
"If  Clifford  were  to  find  her  here,  it  might  disturb  him  !" 
Does  anything  else  in  the  story  thus  far  have  to  do  with 
Clifford?  This  chapter  is  remarkable  for  the  contrasts. 
Explain.  Give  your  estimate  of  Judge  Pyncheon,  citing 
passages  in  illustration.  What  is  the  effect  of  bringing  the 
Judge  and  the  old  family  portrait  and  Hepzibah's  miniature 
into  such  striking  contrast  ? 


34  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Chapter  V.  Would  you  be  surprised  to  find  a  chapter 
in  George  Eliot  opening  like  this  one  ?  Why  ?  In  what 
respect  does  this  chapter  advance  the  plot?  Why  is 
much  space  given  to  Alice  Pyncheon?  What  is  the  sig- 
nificance in  placing  the  facts  about  Mr.  Holgrave  at  the 
end  of  the  chapter?  Review  your  impression  of  the  char- 
acters. Make  a  short  list  of  adjectives  which  best  charac- 
terize each. 

Chapter  VI.  As  you  read,  gather  material  for  short 
essays  on  the  following  subjects  : 

1.  The  Plot  of  The  House  of  Seven  Gables. 

2.  Hawthorne's  Methods  of  depicting  Character. 

3.  Hawthorne  as  a  Descriptive  Artist. 

Is  there  any  particular  significance  in  passages  like  the  follow- 
ing in  regard  to  Mr.  Holgrave  ? 

"There  was  an  odd  kind  of  authority,  too,  in  what  he  now  pro- 
ceeded to  say,  rather  as  if  the  garden  were  his  own  than  a  place  to 
which  he  was  admitted  merely  by  Hepzibah's  courtesy." 

"While  the  tone  of  his  conversation  had  generajly  been  plaj^ul, 
the  impression  left  on  her  [Phoebe's]  mind  was  that  of  gra\dty,  and 
except  as  his  youth  modified  it,  almost  sternness.  She  rebelled,  as 
it  were,  against  a  certain  magnetic  element  in  the  artist's  nature, 
which  he  exercised  toward  her,  possibly  without  being  conscious  of 
it." 

What  more  do  we  learn  of  Judge  Pyncheon  ? 

Chapter  VII.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  passages  in  the 
preceding  chapters  which  look  forward  to  the  introduction 
of  Clifford,  showing  how  elaborate  has  been  the  preparation. 
What  do  these  passages  tell  us  of  his  character  ?  What 
characteristics  are  emphasized  in  the  present  chapter  ?  This 
chapter  should  be  studied  carefully  for  its  literary  methods  — 
the  preparatory  description  delicate  and  sympathetic,  the 
careful  introduction  of  Clifford,   and  the  subtle  portrayal 


THE   ROMANCE   AND    THE   NOVEL  35 

of  his  characteristics  in  a  manner  both  (h-amatic  and  aiialytic. 
How  are  tlie  following  traits  brought  out :  his  feeble  and  in- 
termittent glimmers  of  mind  and  spirit,  his  innate  refine- 
ment, his  love  of  the  beautiful,  his  less  delicate  sensuousness, 
his  essential  selfishness,  his  irritability,  his  childish  terror? 
Discuss  whether  such  a  man  could  have  committed  the  crime 
of  which  he  was  convicted  and  for  which  he  was  imprisoned 
so  long? 

Chapter  VIII.  The  contrast  between  the  superficial 
and  fundamental  characteristics  of  the  Judge  seems  most 
important  in  this  chapter,  but  the  chapter  should  also  be 
studied  from  the  point  of  view  of  plot.  How  is  the  main 
theme  of  the  story  woven  into  the  chapter?  What  in  the 
chapter  looks  forward  to  events  still  to  happen?  Why 
should  Clifford  be  so  afraid  of  the  Judge,  and  Hepzibah  so 
hard  towards  him  ? 

Chapter  IX.  Indicate  passages  where  humor  and  pathos 
are  inextricably  woven  together.  Notice  the  books  Hepzibah 
tries  to  read  to  Clifford.  What  light  does  the  passage  give 
on  Hawthorne's  romantic  interests?  What  are  the  most 
striking  figurative  passages  in  this  chapter?  Can  you  ex- 
press the  effect  of  them  in  your  own  words  ?  By  comparing 
Ivanhoe  and  The  House  of  Seven  Gables  can  you  explain  the 
difference  between  a  romance  of  outward  action  and  a  ro- 
mance of  the  spirit?  This  chapter  illustrates  Hawthorne's 
great  love  of  contrasts.  Explain  in  detail.  Why  do  artists 
so  commonly  use  contrast  ? 

Chapter  X.  Why  does  the  author  dwell  so  much  upon 
the  innocent  childishness  of  Clifford's  nature,  his  delicacy, 
his  sesthetic  sensitiveness  ?  How  does  this  chapter  advance 
the  plot  ?  The  plot  unquestionably  moves  slowly.  Is  the 
reading  tedious  ?  If  so,  you  are  missing  the  charm  of  Haw- 
thorne's    delicate     and     sympathetic    imagination.      What 


36  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

passages  best  show  the  exquisite  sensitiveness  of  Clifford's 
nature  ?     What  makes  the  situation  pathetic  ? 

Chapter  XI.  What,  in  tliis  chapter,  foreshadows  events 
yet  to  take  place  ?  Does  it  develop  any  new  phase  of  Clif- 
ford's experience  ? 

Chapter  XII.  Explain  how  this  chapter  reverts  to  the 
main  theme.  Why  is  Holgrave  so  deeply  interested  in 
the  Pyncheon  traditions  ?  What  is  the  significance  of  the 
following  words  applied  to  Clifford  : 

"Possibly  he  was  in  a  state  of  second  growth  and  recovery,  and 
was  constantly  assimilating  nutriment  for  the  spirit  and  intellect 
from  sights,  sounds,  and  events,  wliich  passed  as  a  perfect  void  to 
persons  more  practiced  with  the  world." 

Chapter  XIII.  Why  is  this  episode  introduced  ?  What 
has  it  to  do  with  the  plot  ? 

Chapter  XIV.  In  what  significant  way  is  this  chapter 
connected  with  the  preceding?  Indicate  the  passages  in 
which  the  beginning  of  love  between  Phoebe  and  Holgrave 
is  delicately  suggested.  What  passages  foreshadow  the  fu- 
ture? In  reply  to  Phoebe's  remark,  "You  hold  something 
back!"  Holgrave  remarked,  "Nothing,  —  no  secrets  but 
my  own!"  What  did  he  mean?  Why  does  Hawthorne 
insert  the  parenthesis,  "hark,  how  Maule's  well  is  murmur- 
ing!" 


^t5 


Chapter  XV.  Indicate  passages  where  explanations  of 
the  plot,  hitherto  vaguely  hinted  at,  are  now  more  clearly 
emphasized.  Notice  the  imagery  by  which  the  Judge's  in- 
ner life  is  elal)orately  illustrated.  What  passages  anticipate 
the  Judge's  retribution  ? 

Chapter  XVI.  How  is  the  element  of  suspense  sustained 
and  the  premonition  of  something  terrible  developed  ?  What 
is  the  effect  of  leaving  unexplained  the  situation  in  the 


THE   ROMANCE   AXD    THE   NOVEL  37 

parlor?  How  would  you  characterize  the  new  develop- 
ment in  Clifford  ? 

Chapter  X\'II.  Are  the  action  and  talk  of  Clifford 
plausible  ?  What  is  Hawthorne's  explanation  of  it  ?  Has 
it  been  anticipated?  Notice  how  the  plot  interest  is  being 
worked  up  to  a  climax. 

Chapter  XVHI.  Hawthorne's  imagination  loves  to 
play  around  a  situation,  vie^^^ng  it  from  many  angles  and 
in  various  lights  and  shadows.     Explain. 

Chapter  XIX.  What  effect  has  the  bringing  together 
of  these  common,  trivial,  and  realistic  incidents  ?  What  bit 
of  philosophizing  about  life  does  Hawthorne  make  it  suggest  ? 

Chapter  XX.  Another  study  in  contrasts.  Gather 
other  illustrations.  What  points  in  connection  with  the  plot 
are  here  cleared  up  ? 

Chapter  XXI.  Enumerate  the  passages  throughout  the 
book  which  vaguely  indicate  that  Holgrave  is  a  descendant 
of  ^Maule.  X'otice  the  method  by  which  Hawthorne  gradu- 
ally' makes  it  clearer.  Examine  in  the  same  way  the  treat- 
ment of  Clifford's  supposed  guilt. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1 .  Hawthorne  a  Lover  of  Contrasts. 

2.  Hatti:horne's  Use  of  the  Supernatural. 

3.  The  Plot  of  The  House  of  Seven  Gables. 

4.  Hawthorne's  Methods  of  Description. 

5.  Hawthorne's  Methods  of  depicting  Character. 

6.  Witchcraft  in  New  England. 

7.  Some  Characteristics  of  Hawthorne  as  a  Man. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   DRAMA 

The  English  drama  can  never  be  understood  without  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  Shakespeare.  He  did  more  than  any 
one  else  to  develop  the  art  of  playwriting  and  to  fix  dramatic 
standards.  All  the  crude  ideas  of  drama  in  the  time  before 
Shakespeare  find  in  him  their  complete  development ;  and 
the  best  writers  since  his  time  have  looked  back  to  him  for 
their  standards  of  excellence.  He  is  the  central  figure  in  the 
history  of  the  English  drama. 

To  understand  Shakespeare  adequately,  we  must  know 
something  of  the  drama  in  the  years  before  he  began 
to  write  for  the  stage.  The  English  drama  developed 
from  very  small  beginnings.  To  be  sure,  the  Greeks 
and  the  Romans  had  long  before  developed  an  elabo- 
rate dramatic  art ;  but  the  modern  drama  did  not  begin 
by  building  upon  classical  models.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  classical  drama  was  practically  swept  away. 
No  classical  plays  were  publicly  acted ;  they  were  not  gen- 
erally read.  The  manuscripts  which  had  been  preserved 
in  the  old  monasteries  were  only  occasionally  read  by  some 
studious  monk,  and  perhaps  acted  on  rare  occasions  in  the 
seclusion  of  the  cloisters.  As  drama,  they  were  not  an  active 
force.  The  only  acted  drama  of  the  Middle  Ages  consisted 
of  (1)  the  entertainments  of  the  traveling  showmen  or  jon- 
gleurs similar  to  the  acts  in  our  variety  shows ;  (2)  the  pan- 
tomimic or  dumb-show  exhibitions  of  the  mimes ;  (3)  the 
popular  dramatic  customs  such  as  the  May-day  games  and 

38 


THE    DRAMA  39 

the  Robin  Hood  plays  and  Sword  plays ;  and  (4)  the  Biblical 
plays  performed  in  the  church.  Out  of  such  crude  perform- 
ances grew  the  Interludes,  the  Miracle  Plays,  the  Chronicle 
History  Plays,  and  the  Drama  of  Blood  —  the  principal  types 
of  pre-Shakespearean  drama.  At  the  time  of  the  Revival  of 
Learning  in  England,  classical  plays  began  to  influence  the 
final  forms  of  dramatic  art ;  but  the  real  origin  of  the  modern 
drama  is  quite  apart  from  classical  traditions.  The  Shake- 
spearean drama  is,  therefore,  essentiall}^  English.  (For  a 
more  detailed  account,  see  Part  II,  pp.  209  ff.,  223  ff.) 

(a)    THE   CHRONICLE   HISTORY   PLAY 

The  Chronicle  History  play  is  perhaps  the  most  strikingly 
English  of  all  the  Shakespearean  dramatic  types.  It  was 
modeled  on  the  old  Miracle  plays.  These  were  originally 
short  Biblical  scenes  in  dialogue  introduced  into  the  church 
service  to  make  it  more  impressive.  Gradually  they  grew 
into  independent  services,  and  at  length  came  to  take  their 
chances  as  popular  entertainments.  Popular  entertain- 
ments, to  be  sure,  were  for  the  most  part  comic  —  dramatic 
song  and  dance  and  game,  and  the  farcical  scenes  of  the  travel- 
ing showmen  —  and  the  Bible  story  was  prevailingly  serious, 
incapable  indeed  of  comic  treatment ;  but,  since  the  me- 
dieval mind  was  not  sensitive  to  incongruities,  scenes  of 
popular  comedy  were  introduced  into  the  Biblical  plays  even 
though  they  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  Biblical 
story.  In  one  of  the  Christmas  plays,  for  instance,  a  famous 
sheep-stealing  farce  is  introduced  into  the  shepherd  scene  just 
before  the  Angel  of  the  Lord  appears  to  announce  the  birth 
of  Christ.  Such  was  a  Miracle  play,  —  a  strange  incongru- 
ous combination  of  the  serious  and  the  comic ;  important, 
however,  as  an  influence  in  the  development  of  the  English 
drama. 


40  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

These  plays  furnished  the  model  for  the  Chronicle  History 
play.  In  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
when  the  whole  nation  was  united  and  triumphant,  when 
patriotism  was  strong  and  the  people  were  eager  to  know  more 
of  their  heroic  past,  the  theater,  which  was  at  that  time  the 
center  of  the  national  life,  met  the  popular  demand  by  put- 
ting English  history  upon  the  stage.  The  playwrights,  how- 
ever, invented  no  new  dramatic  form.  They  constructed 
their  plays  after  the  old  models,  simply  substituting 
English  history  for  Biblical  history.  The  result  was  a 
series  of  historical  scenes  interspersed  with  comic  situa- 
tions often  totally  unrelated  to  the  historical  narrative. 
Playwrights  had  not  yet  learned  the  dramatic  art. 
They  knew  nothing  of  how  to  weave  together  seri- 
ous and  comic  parts  into  a  unity  of  interest.  They  had  no 
clear  idea  of  plot.  Indeed,  there  was  at  first  no  successful 
effort  to  develop  the  story  to  a  dramatic  climax,  or  even  to 
cut  out  the  less  dramatic  material  so  that  the  story  might 
move  rapidly.  Real  dramatic  dialogue  was  rare.  There 
were  long  explanations  and  extended  narratives,  to  which 
most  of  the  characters  listened  without  action.  There  was, 
therefore,  very  little  acting  drama  in  the  Chronicle  History 
play  before  the  time  of  Shakespeare. 

The  same  general  characteristics  appear  in  Shakespeare's 
Chronicle  History  plays,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
Henry  IV,  Parts  I  and  II,  and  Henry  V.  In  these  plays, 
the  serious  main  plot  and  the  comic  underplot  are  not  closely 
related.  One  treats  the  national  wars  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury ;  the  other,  the  tavern  life  of  London  in  the  late  six- 
teenth century.  To  be  sure,  the  two  plots  are  united  in  a 
general  way  by  "  link  personages,"  like  Prince  Hal  and 
Falstaff,  who  appear  both  in  the  serious  and  in  the  comic 
stories,  and  in  Henry  V  the  comic  characters  are  soldiers  in 


THE    DRAMA  41 

Henry  V's  army ;  yet  the  connection  between  the  two  stories 
is  not  essentially  intimate.  Moreover,  long  narrative  and 
reflective  passages  appear  in  the  serious  parts  instead  of  rapid 
acting  dialogue. 

'  These  plays,  however,  have  admirable  qualities  which 
greatly  outweigh  the  defects  of  the  type.  The  comedy  is 
lifelike,  the  situations  highly  amusing,  the  dialogue  exceed- 
ingly witty.  Falstaff  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest 
comic  characters  in  all  literature.  The  serious  story  is 
written  in  a  high  heroic  tone.  Henry  V  is  Shakespeare's 
ideally  heroic  king,  nobly  conceived  and  carefully  developed 
through  the  three  consecutive  plays.  Even  the  long  speeches 
often  contain  very  spirited  declamation.  There  is  a  fine  ring, 
for  instance,  to  the  passage  beginning : 

"Once  more  unto  the  breach,  dear  friends,  once  more ; 
Or  close  the  wall  up  with  our  English  dead." 

(Act  HI,  Scene  1.) 

The  lines  on  St.  Crispian's  day  (Act  IV,  Scene  3)  must  have 
stirred  the  patriotic  feelings  of  a  people  whose  strong  sense 
of  nationality  had  recently  been  aroused.  There  is  a  rich 
reflective  quality  in  the  King's  great  soliloquy  beginning : 

"Upon  the  king  !  let  us  our  lives,  our  souls, 
Our  debts,  our  careful  wives. 
Our  children,  and  our  sins  lay  on  the  King." 

(Act  IV,  Scene  1,  line  22.) 

For  the  study  of  plot,  these  plays  are  not  particularly  sig- 
nificant ;  they  do  not  illustrate  the  highest  artistic  form  in 
either  tragedy  or  comedy;  yet  for  comic  situation,  for 
graphic,  heroic  narrative  in  dialogue  they  are  highly  impor- 
tant. 


42  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

HENRY   V 
Suggestions  for  Study 

Act  I 

Prologue.  The  Choruses  in  Henry  V  have,  in  general, ' 
two  functions :  (1)  they  appeal  to  the  imagination,  and 
(2)  they  bridge  over  intervals  of  time  in  the  action.  The 
appliances  for  representing  action  on  the  stage  were  very 
limited.  Reproductions  of  battle  scenes  were  especially 
inadequate.  The  prologue  makes  due  apologies  for  these 
limitations  and  asks  the  audience  to  use  the  imagination 
to  fill  out  the  scenes.  It  also  introduces  the  theme  of  the 
entire  drama  in  the  words,  "  Oh,  that  it  were  possible  worthily 
to  represent  the  heroic  soldier  king." 

Scene  1.  This  scene  (1)  gives  a  general  idea  of  conditions 
leading  up  to  the  war  and  (2)  explains  certain  traits  of 
Henry's  character.  Why  was  Canterbury's  explanation  of 
the  change  in  Henry's  character  necessary  for  the  Elizabethan 
audience  ?  Why  does  the  church  wish  for  war  ?  Why 
does  Henry  wish  it  ? 

Scene  2.  Explain  Henry's  attitude  toward  religion. 
Was  he  in  the  habit  of  reflecting  much  upon  religious  prob- 
lems ?  What  are  the  archbishop's  arguments  to  support 
Henry's  claim  to  the  throne  of  France  ?  Look  up  the  ances- 
try of  Henry  and  explain  exactly  what  the  claim  was.  What 
do  we  learn  of  Henry's  character  from  his  treatment  of  the 
French  ambassador? 

Act  II 

Prologue.  What  do  we  learn  in  this  prologue  about 
(1)  preparations  for  war?  (2)  the  conspiracy?  (3)  changes 
of  scene?  How  does  the  poetic  account  at  the  beginning 
differ  from  a  commonplace  statement  that  preparations  for 
war  are  being  made  ? 


THE    DRAMA  43 

Scene  1.  The  comic  underplot  introduced  in  this  scene 
has  no  very  intimate  connection  with  the  serious  main  plot. 
It  does,  however,  by  representing  the  "seamy  side"  of  war, 
set  off  by  contrast  the  nobility  of  Henry.  Nym's  talk  is  full 
of  the  slang  phrases  of  the  time.  The  word  "nym"  means 
take,  steal.  In  Pistol's  talk,  Shakespeare  makes  fun  of  the 
phraseology  of  the  old  plays.  This  is  why  Pistol  speaks  in 
verse.  Why  do  characters  of  the  inferior  class  usually  talk 
in  prose  ?  Indicate  the  most  humorous  passages.  Is  either 
Pistol  or  Nym  eager  to  fight  ? 

Scene  2.  The  episode  about  freeing  the  prisoner  is  not 
in  the  chronicle  history  from  which  the  material  for  the  play 
was  taken.  Why  does  Shakespeare  introduce  it  ?  Show  how 
this  scene  illustrates  irony.  Iron}'  arises  when  the  audience 
has  information  of  which  at  least  some  of  the  actors  on  the 
stage  are  ignorant.  What  do  we  learn  from  this  scene  about 
Henry's  character  and  ability  as  a  man  of  action  ? 

Scene  3.  This  accomit  of  the  death  of  Falstaff  is  justly 
famous,  because  it  is  so  human  and  unconventional.  Why 
should  it  be  in  the  play  at  all?  Is  the  Boy  an  ordinary 
boy?  Why  does  Nym  refuse  to  kiss  the  Hostess  at  part- 
ing? 

Scene   4.     Select   three   or   four    adjectives   which   best 

characterize  the  Dauphin.     His  first  speech  (lines  15-22)  is 

sensible.     Is   this   generally   true   of   the    Dauphin's   talk? 

Which  character  among  the  French  is  the  most  admirable  ? 

Does  Exeter  speak  like  a  worthy  messenger  of  King  Henry  ? 

(Give  reasons.) 

Act  III 

Prologue.  What  is  the  main  purpose  of  this  prologue  ? 
Show  how  it  illustrates  Macaulay's  saying  that  "the  poet 
is  a  worker  in  images."  Are  the  adjectives  skillfully 
selected  ? 


44  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Scene  1.  Read  this  fine  declamation  aloud.  It  may  well 
be  learned  by  heart  and  recited. 

Scene  2.  Explain  how  Fluellen,  Macmorris,  and  Jamy 
contrast  in  character  with  Bardolph,  Pijstol,  and  Nym,  Is 
there  any  political  significance  in  bringing  together  in  Henry's 
army  a  Welshman,  an  Irishman,  and  a  Scotchman  ?  (See 
Verity's  King  Henry  V,  Intro,  p.  xxii.) 

Scene  5.  Why  does  Shakespeare  emphasize  the  vaunting, 
self-confident,  and  scornful  spirit  of  the  French  ? 

Scene  6.  Indicate  passages  which  show  Fluellen's  simple- 
mindedness  ;  his  pedantry ;  his  honest  soldiership.  Con- 
trast the  boastful  tone  of  the  message  from  the  French  king 
with  the  brave  seriousness  of  Henry's  speech.  Notice  how 
Henry  checks  his  slight  tendency  toward  boastfulness. 

Scene  7.  What  was  the  dramatic  effect  of  emphasizing 
the  overconfidence  and  arrogance  of  the  French  ? 

Act  IV 

Prologue.  "A  striking  night-piece."  Describe  in  your 
o^vn  words  the  contrast  pictures  of  the  two  armies.  Examine 
the  effect  of  the  skillful  use  of  adjectives.  Boaz  speaks  of 
this  prologue  as  the  ''most  epic  of  the  five." 

Scene  1.  Explain  how  this  scene  brings  us  nearer  to  the 
inner  life  of  Henry  than  any  other  scene  in  the  play.  Com- 
pare lines  142-177  and  lines  220-273  to  determine  why 
Henry  should  speak  prose  in  one  passage  and  poetry  in  the 
other.  Notice  that  Shakespeare  emphasizes  the  duties 
rather  than  the  privileges  of  kingship.  Choose  two  or  three 
adjectives  which  best  characterize  Williams. 

Scene  2.  Show  how  the  scenes  of  this  act  are  arranged 
for  the  effect  of  contrast. 

Scene  3.  What  trait  of  Henry  is  here  emphasized? 
Henry  is  Shakespeare's  ideal  man  of  action,  an  epic  rather 


THE   DRAMA  45 

than  a  tragic  hero.  The  pla}^  treats  of  success  in  practical 
affairs,  not  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  character.  Must  a  tragic 
hero  have  defects  of  character  ? 

Scenes  4-5.  What  is  the  dramatic  purpose  of  Scenes 
iv  and  v  ? 

Scenes    7-8.     Explain    what    is    comic    about    Fluollen. 

Would  this  act  seem  less  real  if  the  quarrel  with  Williams 

were  left  out  ?     Why  ?     The  act  ends  properly  by  sounding 

the  heroic  note. 

Act  V 

Prologue.  This  prologue  bridges  a  gap  of  five  years  in 
the  action. 

Scene  1.  This  scene  tells  what  became  of  Pistol.  What 
became  of  Bardolph  and  Nym  ? 

Scene  2,  Is  the  picture  of  Henry  as  a  lover  in  keeping 
with  his  character  in  the  rest  of  the  pla}^?  Give  reasons. 
Would  you  expect  a  man  who  has  shown  himself  a  master 
of  words  and  of  thoughts  to  be  the  bluff,  plain  soldier  in  his 
wooing  ? 

Epilogue.     The  epilogue  is  a  sonnet  in  form.     Explain 

the  form. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Qualities  Necessary  for  a  Successful  Man  of  Action. 

2.  Hotspur  and  Henry  V,  a  Character  Contrast. 

3.  What  Makes  Fluellen  a  Comic  Character  ? 

4.  Dramatic  Irony  in  Henry  V. 

5.  The  Death  of  Falstaff. 

(b)    TRAGEDY 

Real  tragedy  developed  side  by  side  with  the  Chronicle 
History  play.  When  Shakespeare  began  his  career  in  Lon- 
don, the  theater  was  the  center  of  English  life ;  it  served  as 
newspaper,  magazine,  and  text-book  of  history.     We  have 


46  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

seen  how  the  people  flocked  to  the  theater  to  hear  about 
England's  heroic  past.  In  the  same  way,  they  came  to  hear 
the  latest  murder  or  scandal,  the  newest  Italian  or  Spanish 
story.  For  a  number  of  years,  the  playwrights  had  been 
accustomed  to  put  on  the  stage  whatever  public  opinion 
craved.  At  first,  the  work  was  crude,  like  the  yellow 
journalism  of  to-day,  a  veritable  tragedy  of  blood.  But 
gradually  the  playwrights  improved  in  taste.  Men  like 
Christopher  Marlowe,  who  knew  something  of  the  classical 
drama  then  having  a  revival  in  the  schools,  began  to  write 
for  the  stage  with  more  definite  ideas  of  the  dramatic  art. 
These  men  began  to  develop  a  sense  for  tragic  situations ; 
they  learned  to  select  dramatic  material ;  they  felt  the  need 
of  a  definite  dramatic  theme ;  they  prepared  the  way  for 
Shakespeare. 

Shakespeare  developed  the  idea  that  tragedy  is  not  a 
bloody  narrative  in  dialogue,  but  human  passion  in  action. 
He  recognized  the  two  forces  at  work  in  man's  experience : 
a  force  within  him,  his  individuality,  often  strong  and  pas- 
sionate ;  a  force  outside  of  him,  blocking  the  way  to  self- 
realization,  the  force  of  environment,  destiny,  fate,  God. 
He  knew  that  the  clash  of  these  two  forces  makes  tragedy, 
human  will  in  conflict  with  the  laws  of  life,  passion  clashing 
with  environment  or  fate.  A  strong,  passionate  soul  strug- 
gles to  express  itself  in  action,  but  finds  itself  in  conflict  with 
forces  it  cannot  control.  The  clash  brings  tragic  conse- 
quences. Tragedy,  therefore,  is  threefold:  (1)  passion,  (2) 
the  struggle  to  express  that  passion  in  action,  (3)  the  inevit- 
able consequences  of  the  deed.  Macbeth,  for  instance,  is 
ruled  by  the  passion  of  ambition ;  he  must  sit  upon  the 
throne  of  Scotland.  He  struggles  to  achieve  his  ambition, 
kills  Duncan,  and  becomes  king.  His  actions,  however,  set 
in  motion  great  forces  of  life  which  bring  back  upon  him  the 


THE    DRAMA  47 

inevitable  consequences  of  his  sins.  In  the  very  nature  of  a 
tragedy,  there  is  a  definite  beginning,  middle,  and  end  — 
introduction,  climax,  and  catastrophe.  An  individual  pas- 
sion is  aroused.  It  reaches  its  climax  in  a  clash  with  outside 
forces.     The  clash  brings  tragic  consequences. 

Herein  is  the  explanation  of  the  acts  of  a  drama.  A  de- 
veloped tragedy  seems  to  demand  three  acts  at  least :  an 
introductory  act,  a  climax  act,  and  a  catastrophe  act.  There 
may,  however,  be  more  ;  in  Shakespeare's  tragedies  there  are 
five.  Passion  once  aroused  needs  time  to  develop  toward  a 
climax.  Shakespeare  devoted  an  entire  act  to  this  develop- 
ment, technically  called  the  rising  action.  Also  after  the 
climax,  the  forces  of  reaction  need  time  to  become  operative 
and  develop  toward  the  catastrophe.  Shakespeare  devoted 
an  entire  act  to  this  movement,  called  technically  the  falling 
or  returning  action.  The  conventional  tragic  form  thus 
became : 

Act     I.     The  Introduction. 

Act    II.     The  Rising  Action. 

Act  III.     The  Climax. 

Act  IV.     The  Falling  or  Returning  Action. 

Act     V.     The  Catastrophe. 

JULIUS   C^SAR 

In  the  events  which  clustered  around  the  assassination  of 
Julius  Csesar,  Shakespeare  found  typical  material  for  a  tragic 
drama.  A  small  band  of  conspirators,  moved  by  ambition 
and  misguided  patriotism,  sought  the  death  of  Caesar, 
accomplished  their  end,  and  then,  in  the  events  which 
followed,  suffered  the  inevitable  consequences  of  their  deed. 
Here  is  a  great  dramatic  centerpiece  with  an  almost  perfect 
balance  of  material  on  either  side ;  for,  on  one  side,  all  the 
events  lead  directly  to  the  climax ;  on  the  other  side,  all  the 


48  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

events  are  direct  consequences  of  it.  In  the  first  act  of  Shake- 
speare's drama,  the  characters  are  introduced  and  the  social 
conditions  out  of  which  the  drama  arises  explained.  In  the 
second  act,  the  conspiracy  is  developed.  The  third  act  pre- 
sents the  triumph  of  the  conspirators  in  the  death  of  CaBsar. 
In  the  fourth  act,  the  forces  of  reaction  represented  by 
Antony,  Ootavius,  and  the  Ghost  of  Caesar  are  brought  into 
play.  The  fifth  act  recounts  the  downfall  and  death  of  the 
conspirators  in  a  final  catastrophe. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Act  I 

Scene  1.  This  little  scene  makes  an  admirable  beginning. 
The  fickle  mob  furnishes  background  for  the  action,  and  shows 
the  uncertain  political  conditions  of  the  time,  thus  striking 
the  key-note  of  the  play.  It  also  shows  Rome's  attitude 
toward  Caesar.     Compare  the  first  scene  in  Macbeth. 

Explain  the  puns  and  plays  upon  words  in  lines  11,  14, 
19,  20,  21,  22,  26,  28.  Why  is  there  a  change  from  prose 
to  verse  at  line  36  ?  Indicate  the  passages  which  look  foi'- 
ward  to  the  main  action  of  the  play. 

Scene  2.  This  scene  is  technicall}'  the  introduction  or 
exposition  scene.  It  brings  in  all  the  principal  characters 
connected  with  the  rising  action,  shows  how  they  differ  in 
character,  and  explains  the  relations  which  they  bear  one 
to  another.  It  gives  in  detail  the  exact  situation  in  Rome, 
and,  at  the  end,  broaches  the  subject  of  the  conspiracy. 
What  lines  mark  the  beginning  of  the  rising  action  ? 

Indicate  the  particular  passages  which  explain  the  charac- 
ter of  Caesar,  Brutus,  and  Cassius.  Remember  that  in 
spite  of  all  Cassius  and  Casca  say  of  Caesar  he  is  still  a 
great  power  in  the  state,  and  that  his  power,  now  kept  in 


THE    DRAMA  49 

the  background,  is  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the 
action.  Contrast  the  motives  of  Brutus  and  of  Cassius. 
What  in  the  character  of  Brutus  makes  him  the  victim  of 
adroit  flattery?  What  are  the  five  parts  into  which  this 
scene  may  be  divided  ?  Explain  the  special  purpose  of  each 
part.  Notice  how  the  mob  is  made  a  constant  backgromid 
for  the  action. 

Scene  3.  To  what  extent  does  this  scene  develop  the  con- 
spiracy ?  Shakespeare  is  very  skillful  in  making  supernatural 
elements  deepen  the  tragic  significance  of  his  theme.  Notice 
in  detail  how  they  help  to  work  up  an  emotional  tension. 
Cite  examples  of  the  use  of  the  supernatural  in  other  plays. 
The  supernatural  made  a  deeper  impression  on  an  Elizabethan 
audience  than  it  does  on  a  modern  audience,  for  the  people 
were  then  closer  to  the  superstitions  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  superstitions  were  perhaps  no  longer  definitely  believed, 
but  they  were  still  in  the  blood,  and  the  people  were  imagin- 
atively very  susceptible  to  them. 

Act  II 

Scene  1.  What  is  the  main  purpose  of  this  scene?  Indi- 
cate the  particular  passages  which  show  the  gradual  change 
in  the  mind  of  Brutus  as  he  is  little  by  little  won  over  to  the 
conspiracy.  Explain  his  attitude  in  lines  10-34.  Is  he 
deceiving  himself?  Is  his  reasoning  sound?  is  the  talk 
about  the  sunrise  natural  ?  Why  is  it  introduced  ?  Why 
is  the  conversation  between  Brutus  and  Cassius  not  intro- 
duced into  the  text  and  developed?  Notice  the  respect 
shown  toward  Brutus.  Compare  the  talk  of  Brutus  and 
Cassius.  Which  has  the  keener  intellect  ?  Which  has  the 
more  noble  spirit  ?  (Give  reasons.)  Select  three  or  four  ad- 
jectives which  describe  Portia's  character  as  it  appears  in 
this  scene. 

E 


50  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Scene  2.  Why  is  Caesar's  weakness  dwelt  upon  ?  Is  he 
the  hero  of  the  play  ?  If  not,  why  is  the  play  called  Julius 
Coesar? 

Scene  4.  Does  Portia  know  of  the  conspiracy  ?  Give 
reasons.     Make  a  brief  summary  of  the  rising  action  thus  far. 

Act  III 

Scene  1.  This  is  technically  the  climax  scene  of  the  play. 
Explain  why.  What  lines  indicate  the  highest  point  of 
triumph  of  the  conspirators?  At  the  moment  of  triumph, 
what  force  is  introduced  which  is  finally  to  undo  the  conspira- 
tors ?  Explain  how  the  nobility  of  Brutus,  which  has  all 
along  been  the  strength  of  the  conspiracy,  now  becomes  its 
weakness.  Is  Brutus  intellectually  weak  ?  Is  he  a  practi- 
cal man  ?  Would  the  conspiracy  have  succeeded  if  the 
advice  of  Cassius  had  been  followed  ?  Explain  how  the  con- 
trol of  the  action  passes  over  into  the  hands  of  Antony. 
Compare  the  attitude  of  Cassius  toward  Antony  with  the 
attitude  of  Brutus  toward  him.  Learn  by  heart  lines  254- 
275,  and  try  to  express  the  passion  climax  contained  in  them. 
Divide  the  scene  into  its  component  parts.  There  are  two 
principal  situations  and  two  transition  parts.  Compare 
Brutus  as  a  man  of  action  with  Henry  V. 

Scene  2.  Compare  the  speeches  of  Brutus  and  Antony 
carefully.  Why  is  one  in  prose  and  the  other  in  verse  ? 
Which  is  the  more  intellectual  ?  Which  is  the  more  emo- 
tional ?  (Cite  passages  in  explanation.)  Indicate  particular 
places  in  Antony's  speech  which  show  his  ability  to  appreciate 
the  temper  of  his  audience  and  to  adapt  himself  to  any  change 
in  their  feelings.  Is  there  any  reason  why  he  should  pause 
at  line  108,  except  that  Shakespeare  docs  not  wish  to  make 
the  speech  so  long  that  the  audience  will  feel  that  we  have 
passed  from  drama  to  oratory  ? 


THE    DRAMA  51 

The  returning  notion  is  now  well  under  way. 

Scene  8.  Review  all  the  scenes  in  which  the  mob  appeara, 
and  ask  yourself  how  significant  the  mob  is  in  the  general 
development  of  the  action. 

Act  IV 

Scenes  1  and  2.  After  the  passionate  third  act  these 
scenes  may  seem  tame  and  uninteresting.  The  returning 
action  of  a  typical  tragedy  like  Julius  Ccesar  is  not  easy  for  a 
dramatist  to  manage.  The  climax  has  passed  and  a  new  set 
of  forces  must  be  brought  into  action.  This  takes  time,  and 
consequently  the  interest  is  likely  to  flag.  Show  the  relation 
of  each  of  these  scenes  to  the  development  of  the  returning 
action. 

Scene  3.  To  compensate  for  the  falling  off  in  tension, 
Shakespeare  usually  takes  pains  to  present  one  scene  of  the 
returning  action  with  elaborate  brilliancy.  Scene  3  is  such 
a  scene.  Does  the  quarrel  in  any  way  foreshadow  the  catas- 
trophe? Note  passages  which  show  the  impetuosity  of 
Cassius  in  contrast  with  the  coolness  of  Brutus.  Indicate 
lines  which  bring  out  particular  aspects  of  the  character  of 
Brutus.  Why  is  the  ghost  introduced?  Does  it  help  to 
explain  the  title  of  the  play  ? 

Act  V 

Scene  1.  This  scene  is  introductory  to  the  catastrophe. 
Indicate  particular  passages  which  look  forward  to  the  catas- 
trophe. In  the  parley,  notice  how  each  speech  is  in  keeping 
with  the  character  of  the  speaker. 

Scene  2.  Why  is  this  little  seen 3  introduced?  How  is 
it  that  such  a  scene  was  possible  in  Shakespeare's  theater,  but 
impossible  on  the  modern  stage  ? 

Scenes   3-5.       Is  it  true  that  the  play  has  a  double 


52  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

catastrophe,  the  death  of  Cassius  and  the  death  of  Brutus  ? 
Or  is  the  real  catastrophe  the  death  of  Brutus,  the  death  of 
Cassius  being  only  incidental  and  preparatory  ?  Who  is  the 
tragic  hero  of  the  play  ?  Is  the  catastrophe  an}^'where  at- 
tributed to  the  force  represented  by  Caesar  ? 

Topics  for  Written  Reports 

1.  The  Name  of  the  Play. 

2.  The  Regular  Structure  of  a  Tragedy. 

3.  The  Character  of  Brutus.     (300  words) 

4.  The  Blunders  of  Brutus.     (200  words) 

5.  The  Part  of  the  jVIob  in  the  Play. 

6.  Reasons  for  behev-ingthat  Portia  knew  about  the  Conspiracy. 

7.  The  Speeches  of  Brutus  and  Antony   (Act  III,  Scene  2) 
compared. 

8.  An  Account  of  the  Quarrel  and  Reconcihation  of  Brutus  and 
Cassius. 

9.  An  Analysis  of  Antony's  Speech,  showing  his  Skill  in  uifluen- 
cing  the  Mob. 

10.   How  Julius  CcBsar  differs  from  a  Chronicle  History  Play. 

MACBETH 

Macbeth,  like  Julius  Ccesar,  is  a  typical  tragedy  both  in 
subject  matter  and  in  structure.  Macbeth,  a  member  of 
the  royal  family  but  not  the  heir  to  the  throne,  is  ambitious 
to  be  king,  and  is  urged  to  realize  his  ambition  by  Lady 
]\Iacbeth,  who  is  in  full  sympathy  with  her  husband.  To- 
gether they  plan  and  effect  the  murder  of  Duncan,  the 
King,  and  have  themselves  crowned.  One  crime  demands 
another,  however,  and  they  continue  in  their  career  of  mur- 
der, until  the  inevitable  reaction  destroys  them  both.  Shake- 
speare has  used  these  external  facts  to  represent  a  great  internal 
tragedy.      He  works  out  the  influence  of  evil  upon  character, 


THE    DRAMA  53 

and  emphasizes  the  inevitable  consequences  of  wrong-doing  in 
moral  degeneration  and  life-consuming  remorse.  The  trag- 
edy is  therefore  both  external  and  internal.  Act  I  contains 
the  introduction.  In  it  the  setting  of  the  action  is  explained, 
the  principal  characters  introduced,  and  Macbeth's  ambition 
stimulated  to  action.  Act  II,  the  rising  action,  contains  the 
development  of  Macbeth's  plans  to  secure  the  throne,  and 
so  has  for  its  chief  scene  the  murder  of  Duncan.  The  internal 
tragedy,  i.e.,  the  beginning  of  Macbeth's  moral  degeneration, 
is  emphasized.  The  third  or  climax  act  finds  Macbeth 
seated  upon  the  throne,  and  has  as  a  dramatic  centerpiece 
the  banquet  scene,  in  which  the  coronation  is  celebrated. 
This  triumph,  however,  is  not  quite  complete.  Macbeth's 
plans  for  making  his  position  secure  are  not  altogether  suc- 
cessful, and  apparitions  come  to  throw  him  into  confusion 
and  foreshadow  his  ruin.  The  dramatic  interest  lies  largely 
in  the  inner  tragedy  of  a  nature  neither  mentally  clear  nor 
morally  sure,  when  it  finds  itself  for  the  first  time  face  to 
face  with  the  power  of  moral  retribution.  In  Act  IV,  the 
forces  of  reaction  become  centered  around  Malcolm  and 
Macduff.  Macbeth's  moral  degradation  becomes  complete. 
Act  V,  the  catastrophe  act,  presents  the  inevitable  ruin  of  both 
Macbeth  and  Lady  Macbeth  in  moral  confusion  and  remorse. 
The  following  titles  have  been  given  to  the  acts :  I.  The 
Temptation,  II.  The  Deed,  III.  Fate  Challenged,  IV.  Fate 
Deceives,  V.  Fate  Conquers. 

The  greatness  of  the  play  as  a  piece  of  art  may  easily  be 
seen  by  comparing  it  with  the  material  upon  which  it  is 
based.  Holinshed's  Chronicles  furnished  the  groundwork  for 
the  plot.  That  material  Shakespeare  has  adapted,  enlarged, 
and  enriched  by  his  own  knowledge  of  life,  especially  as 
regards  the  character  of  the  human  heart  and  the  motives  of 
conduct.     Under  his  transforming  power,  a  mere  sequence 


54  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

of  events  becomes  an  artistic  study  of  life.  Events  far  sep- 
arated in  time  and  originally  connected  with  quite  distinct 
and  widely  separated  persons  are  brought  together,  related 
to  one  individual,  and  made  to  interpret  dramatically  one 
of  the  greatest  moral  problems  —  the  problem  of  the  growth 
of  evil  in  the  human  heart  and  its  inevitable  consequences. 
The  student  should  compare  the  play,  scene  by  scene,  with 
the  account  in   Holinshed's  Chronicles. 

Notes  and  Suggestions 

Act  I 

Scene  1.  Why  does  Shakespeare  begin  with  the  meeting 
of  the  witches  instead  of  with  the  historical  material  furnished 
by  Holinshed?  Coleridge  says  that  this  scene  "strikes  the 
key-note  of  the  whole  drama."  Exactly  what  does  he  mean  ? 
Compare  the  opening  scene  of  Julius  Ccesar. 

Scene  2.  Shakespeare's  skill  in  adapting  his  material 
to  the  purposes  of  his  dramatic  theme  is  well  illustrated  in 
this  scene.  His  purpose  is  to  explain  conditions  in  the  state, 
place  Macbeth  in  the  midst  of  these  conditions,  and  center 
interest  upon  him.  Much  of  the  material  found  in  Holin- 
shed is  eliminated  and  the  rest  focused  upon  Macbeth,  al- 
though he  is  not  yet  brought  upon  the  stage  in  person.  Two 
distinct  campaigns  related  at  length  by  Holinshed  are  brought 
together  within  the  limits  of  a  single  day,  and  just  those  few 
facts  presented  which  bring  out  Macbeth's  character  and 
arouse  interest  in  his  fortunes.  The  Sergeant  informs  us 
that  Macbeth  has  won  the  victory  in  a  fierce  battle  with 
Macdonwald,  and  immediately  follows  his  account  with  the 
news  of  a  new  and  still  more  desperate  struggle  with  Sweno, 
the  Norwegian  lord,  who  has  taken  this  occasion  for  an  at- 
tack upon   Macbeth.     While  our  interest  is  aroused  over 


THE    DRAMA  55 

the  outcome  of  this  conflict,  Ross  enters  to  announce  the 
second  victory  and  to  rchitt"  the  treachery  of  Cawdor. 
Everything  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  out  Mac- 
beth's  bravery  and  nobihty.  Moreover,  invasion  and  rebel- 
lion suggest  weak  rule  l)y  Duncan,  whereas  Macbeth  is  able 
to  meet  the  situation.  Duncan's  weakness  becomes  a  temp- 
tation to  Macbeth.  Does  Macbeth  appear  more  noble  in 
this  scene  than  in  Holinshed's  account  ?  Why  is  the  Thane 
of  Cawdor  introduced  at  this  point  ? 

Scene  3.  Study  the  character  of  the  weird  sisters. 
Are  they  ordinary  witches  ?  Compare  them  with  the  three 
fates  of  classical  mythology.  In  this  scene,  the  passion 
struggle  begins  with  the  temptation  of  Macbeth.  Do  the 
weird  sisters  present  an  entirely  new  idea  to  Macbeth,  or 
do  they  simply  voice  what  has  already  been  taking  form  in 
his  mind  ?  Notice  the  different  effect  which  the  ■SNitches  have 
upon  Banquo  and  Macbeth.  What  difference  does  this  in- 
dicate in  the  characters  of  the  two  men  ?  Does  Macbeth's 
sudden  start  indicate  surprise  or  guilt  ?  Compare  the  three 
passages  relating  to  Cawdor  (I,  ii,  52  f. ;  I,  iii,  72  f.  and  112  ff.). 
Are  they  inconsistent  ?  Principal  French,  commenting  on 
I.  iii,  72,  says:  "Notice  the  insincerity.  ^Macbeth  has  met 
Cawdor  in  battle  and  knew  him  to  be  a  traitor."  (See 
Scene  ii,  line  53.)  Do  the  words  of  the  text  necessarily 
imply  that  Cawdor  was  in  the  battle  ?  (Cf.  Scene  iii,  lines 
112  ff.)  Does  Holinshed  say  so?  Does  Banquo  know  of 
the  treason  ? 

Scene  4.  Explain  the  difference  in  character  between 
Macbeth  and  Duncan  as  they  appear  in  this  scene?  Is 
there  any  dramatic  reason  for  making  Duncan  more  noble 
than  Holinshed  makes  him  ?  Is  there  any  significance  in 
making  ^Macbeth  enter  immediately  after  Duncan  has  said 
of  Cawdor, 


56  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

"There  is  no  art 
To  find  the  mind's  construction  in  the  face : 
He  was  a  gentleman  on  whom  I  built 
An  absolute  trust." 

What  is  the  effect  upon  Macbeth  of  the  King's  announce- 
ment that  he  bequeaths  the  crown  to  his  eldest  son,  and  of 
his  further  announcement  that  he  \\dll  visit  Macbeth  at 
Inverness  ?  Has  Macbeth  at  this  time  any  idea  of  murdering 
Duncan  ? 

Scene  5.  The  character  of  Lady  Macbeth  is  almost  en- 
tirely the  creation  of  Shakespeare.  All  Holinshed  says  of 
her  is,  "But  speciallie  his  wife  lay  sore  upon  him  to  attempt 
the  king,  as  she  was  verie  ambitious,  burning  in  unquench- 
able desire  to  beare  the  name  of  a  queene."  A  hint  or  two 
further  came  from  John  Bellenden's  translation  of  Boece's 
Chronicles  of  Scotland  (see  note  to  Act  I,  Scene  vii  below),  but 
the  hints  of  both  Holinshed  and  Bellenden  when  compared 
with  Shakespeare's  lines  serve  only  to  emphasize  Shake- 
speare's original  creative  powers.  Does  Shakespeare  make 
Lady  Macbeth  ambitious  for  herself,  as  Holinshed  did,  or 
ambitious  for  her  husband  ?  Has  this  anything  to  do  with 
the  firm  unity  of  the  play  ?  Is  the  letter  the  first  intimation 
Lady  Macbeth  has  of  her  husband's  ambition  or  have  they 
discussed  plans  for  the  throne  before  ?  Consider  this  in  con- 
nection with  Macbeth's  attitude  when  the  weird  sisters  first 
address  him  and  with  Lady  Macbeth's  words  in  Act  I,  Scene 
vii,  lines  47  ff.  Does  this  scene  present  Lady  Macbeth  as  a 
cold-blooded  plotter  of  murder  or  is  she  by  an  effort  of  the 
will  forcing  herself  to  an  act  which  her  conscience  strongly 
condemns  ?  Notice  her  characterization  of  Macbeth.  What 
does  she  mean  by  "milk  of  human  kindness"  ?  Is  Macbeth 
slower  of  mind  than  Lady  Macbeth  ?  Has  he  any  clearer 
insight  into  right  and  wrong?     Give  reasons. 


THE    DRAMA  57 

Scene  6.  The  serene  beauty  of  this  scene  is  in  marked 
contrast  with  tlie  dark  horror  of  the  scenes  which  immediately 
precede  and  follow.  Does  it  make  the  action  of  Macbeth 
and  his  wife  seem  more  atrocious?  Explain  the  dramatic 
irony  of  the  scene.  How  docs  Duncan  in  this  scene  differ 
from  the  Duncan  of  Holinshed  ?     Why  the  change  ? 

Scene  7.  Analyze  Macbeth's  soliloquy.  Indicate  clearly 
the  divisions  into  which  it  falls,  and  state  the  theme  of 
each.  Is  the  solilo(iuy  a  unit  ?  Does  it  end  with  the  sub- 
ject with  which  it  began  ?  Are  ordinary  people  more  likely 
to  risk  punishment  after  death  than  punishment  here  on 
earth  ?  Sum  up  the  points  of  difference  between  Macbeth 
and  Lady  Macbeth  which  you  have  gained  from  the  play 
thus  far.  Bellenden's  translation  of  Boece  says  of  Lady 
Macbeth,  ''Attour  his  wife,  impacient  of  lang  tary,  as  all 
wemen  ar,  specially  quliare  thay  ar  desirus  of  ony  purpos, 
gaif  him  gret  artation  to  persew  the  thrid  weird,  that  scho 
micht  be  ane  queue ;  calland  him,  oft  timis,  febil  cowart, 
and  nocht  desirus  of  honouris ;  sen  he  durst  not  assailye  the 
thing  with  manheid  and  curage,  quhik  is  oft'erit  to  him  be 
benivolence  of  fortoun ;  how  belt  sindry  otheris  hes  assailyeit 
sic  thingis  afore,  with  maist  terribil  jeopardyis,  quhen  they 
had  not  sic  sickernes  to  succeid  in  the  end  of  their  laubouris 
as  he  had."  Compare  this  with  Shakespeare's  lines.  The 
underlying  thought  is  the  same,  but  the  total  effect  is  very 
different.  Notice  how  Macbeth  and  Lady  Macbeth  react 
upon  each  other.  His  faltering  makes  her  more  determined. 
Her  spiritual  energy  antl  practical  ability  then  react  ui^on 
his  ambition,  so  that  he  rushes  headlong  into  deeds  of  blood. 
Did  Macbeth  waver  from  deeply  conscientious  scruples? 
Which  has  the  greater  influence  upon  him,  Lady  Macbeth's 
emotion  or  her  argument  ? 


58  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Act  II 

Scene  1.  Holinshed  makes  Banquo  an  accomplice  of 
Macbeth.  He  says,  "At  length,  therefore,  communicating 
his  [Macbeth's]  purposed  intent  with  his  trustie  friends, 
amongst  whome  Banquo  was  the  chiefest,  upon  confidence  of 
their  promised  aid,  he  [Macbeth]  slew  the  King  at  Enbe.us." 
Does  Shakespeare  make  Banquo  a  party  to  the  murder?  If 
not,  is  Banquo  essentially  noble  or  merely  politic  ?  Is  it 
possible  to  interpret  in  more  than  one  way  the  inner  work- 
ings of  the  two  men's  minds  ? 

Macbeth's  soliloquy  at  the  end  of  the  scene  shows  how  a 
morally  unsure  and,  therefore,  superstitious  mind  becomes 
overwrought  in  the  presence  of  a  great  and  pressing  moral 
issue.     Should  the  dagger  be  represented  on  the  stage  ? 

It  was  customary  in  Shakespeare's  time  to  end  a  speech 
with  a  rhymed  flourish  to  give  one  actor  an  effective  exit  and 
the  next  actor  his  cue.  This  scene  ends  with  a  double  rime- 
tag.  One  is  strikingly  effective  ;  the  other  is  so  poor  that 
we  can  hardly  conceive  of  Shakespeare's  having  written  it. 
Explain  the  difference. 

Scene  2.  Holinshed  does  not  give  details  of  the  murder 
of  Duncan.  Shakespeare  took  the  details  from  the  account 
of  the  murder  of  King  Duff.  Notice  how  the  baldest  state- 
ments often  suggest  to  the  poet  splendid  imaginative  pas- 
sages. Compare  the  lines  on  sleep  with  the  following  words 
of  the  Chronicles:  "The  king  with  this  voice  being  stricken 
with  great  dread  and  terror,  passed  that  night  without  anie 
sleep  comming  in  his  eies." 

The  murder  is  not  presented  on  the  stage.  Is  the  device 
of  showing  its  effect  upon  Macbeth  and  his  wife  more  im- 
pressive ?  Is  the  effect  more  important  to  the  drama  than 
the  murder   itself?      Is    Macbeth    or    Lady  Macbeth    the 


THE    DRAMA  59 

stronger  and  clearer  thinker?  (Give  reasons  for  yowT 
answers.) 

Scene  3.  On  the  effect  of  the  knocking  and  on  the  dra- 
matic necessity  of  the  Porter  scene,  Tom  Taylor,  the  drama- 
tist, has  said  :  "  With  reference  to  the  exigencies  of  the  action, 
the  knocking  is  of  great  importance.  It  heightens  the  horror 
of  the  scene  in  a  very  extraordinary  degree,  and  also  gives 
relief  to  the  intensity  of  the  situation.  Looking  at  the  scene 
as  a  practical  dramatist,  I  see  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  get  Macbeth  off  the  stage.  A  motive  must  be  contrived 
for  this.  That  motive  is  at  once  supplied  by  the  sudden 
knocking.  It  creates  alarm,  gets  rid  of  Macbeth  and  his 
^^'ife,  raises  the  castle,  and  gives  them  time  to  dress  and 
nerve  themselves  to  meet  the  crowd  which  will  shortly 
assemble,  and  to  face  the  discovery  of  the  murder  which 
caimot  be  longer  deferred.  Thus  the  knocking  at  the  gate 
serves,  as  almost  everything  does  in  Shakespeare,  a  double 
purpose.  It  intensifies  the  horror,  and  gets  rid  of  ^Macbeth 
just  when  his  absence  is  wanted.  A  practical  dramatist 
always  has  to  think  of  this.  Then  a  speech  is  necessary  here, 
that  Macbeth  may  change  his  dress  before  he  returns.  Here 
again  comes  in  the  practical  dramatist."  (Trans.  New  Shak. 
Soc.    1874,  p.  270  ff.) 

Coleridge  said  :  "This  low  soliloquy  of  the  Porter  and  his 
few  speeches  afterw'ards  I  believe  to  have  been  WTitten  for 
the  mob  by  some  other  hand,  perhaps  with  Shakespeare's 
consent,  and  that  finding  it  take,  he  Avith  the  remaining  ink 
of  a  pen  otherwise  employed  just  interpolated  the  words  -^ 
'I'll  devil  porter  it  no  further;  I  had  thought  to  have  let 
in  some  of  all  professions,  that  go  the  primrose  way  to  the 
everlasting  bonfire.'  Of  the  rest,  not  one  syllable  has  the 
ever  present  being  of  Shakespeare." 

Does  the  scene  seem  to  vou  dramaticallv  effective?     See 


60  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

De  Quincey's  remarks  On  the  Knocking  at  the  Gate  in 
Macbeth. 

Macduff  is  the  leader  of  the  external  forces  against  Mac- 
beth. Trace  his  growing  influence  on  the  action  from  his 
challenge  in  the  words,  "Wherefore  did  you  so?"  (line  90) 
to  the  end  of  the  play. 

Scene  4.  "This  scene  gives  relief  and  perspective  to  the 
action,  by  presenting  it  from  an  outside  point  of  view,  that 
of  the  Scottish  subject."  (E.  K.  Chambers.)  How  does 
this  scene  advance  the  plot  ? 

Act  III 

Scene  1.  Crime  leads  tofrime.  Banquo  knows  too  much, 
and  Macbeth's  suspicions  will  not  rest  Avhile  Banquo  lives. 
Moreover,  Macbeth  cannot  forget  the  prophecy  that  Ban- 
quo's  issue  shall  supplant  him.  He  must  try  to  avert  that 
fate.  Is  there  anything  in  Macbeth's  conversation  with  the 
murderers  to  indicate  that  they  are  not  common  hirelings, 
but  have  been  persons  of  consequence  in  the  state  ? 

Scene  2.  Macbeth  no  longer  needs  the  urging  of  his 
wife.  He  now  goes  on  in  his  career  of  crime  without  taking 
her  into  his  confidence.  Notice  how  finely  the  poet  portrays 
the  misery  of  the  pair  in  their  success.  Memorize  Macbeth's 
speech  beginning,  "We  have  scotch'd  the  snake,  not  killed  it." 

Scene  3.  Does  the  third  murderer  know  more  about 
Banquo's  plans  and  habits  than  do  the  other  murderers? 
Does  he  seem  to  take  the  lead  in  this  enterprise  ?  Is  there 
anything  to  suggest  his  identity  ?  Fleance  does  not  appear 
again  in  the  play.  Why  does  Shakespeare  have  him  escape  ? 
Is  the  important  thing  in  this  act  the  murder  of  Banquo  or 
the  determination  of  Macbeth  to  defy  fate  ?  Does  Shake- 
speare "virtually  make  Macbeth's  soul  the  real  stage  of  the 
action"? 


THE    DRAMA  61 

Scene  4.  This  scene  is  the  clraniatic  ceulerpiece  of  the 
drama.  It  is  entirely  the  creation  of  Shakespeare,  for  the 
only  detail  found  in  Holinshed  is  the  mention  that  a  supper 
was  to  take  place.  Notice  that  Macbeth 's  mind  is  becoming 
less  acute  and  more  subject  to  superstitious  influences.  He 
knew  the  "airy  dagger"  was  not  a  real  dagger,  and  was  able 
to  shake  off  the  weakness.  He  firmly  l)elieves  the  appari- 
tion real,  and  cannot  overcome  his  terror.  Why  is  Lady 
Macbeth  not  subject  to  superstitious  influences?  At  just 
what  point  does  Macbeth  see  the  ghost?  Imagine  yourself 
acting  the  part.  Do  the  other  actors  see  the  ghost?  If 
not,  should  the  ghost  be  visibly  represented  on  the  stage,  or 
should  the  gesture  and  actions  of  Macbeth  convey  to  the 
audience  what  he  sees  ?  Some  critics  believe  that  the  stage 
directions  are  wrong,  and  that  one  of  the  apparitions  is  the 
ghost  of  Duncan.  Is  there  anything  in  the  lines  to  suggest 
this  ?  At  the  end  of  the  scene,  we  find  MacdufT  at  enmity 
^A^th  Macbeth.  Is  this  a  surprise  or  have  we  been  prepared 
for  it  ?     (See  Act  II,  Scene  iv.) 

Scene  6.     What  is  irony?     Point  out   the  irony  of   the 

speech  of  Lennox.     Trace  the  gro\\i:h  of  opinion  adverse 

to  Macbeth. 

Act  IV 

Scene  1.  Macbeth  is  fast  falling  into  the  power  of  his 
evil  fate,  which  takes  delight  in  tantalizing  and  misleading 
him,  assuring  him  of  his  personal  safety  and  at  the  same  time 
warning  him  against  Macduff.  How  are  Macbeth's  actions 
influenced  by  the  apparitions  ?  Does  he  determine  to  kill 
Macduff's  wife  and  children  in  order  to  overcome  anj^  opposi- 
tion, or  is  he  simply  made  reckless  by  the  double-dealing  of 
fate? 

Scene  2.  Macbeth's  moral  degradation  is  now  complete. 
What  makes  this  murder  scene  more   revolting  than  the 


62  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

murder  of  Duncan  or  of  Banquo  ?     How  does  the  pathetic 
domestic  scene  at  the  begimiing  contribute  to  this  effect  ? 

Scene  3.  This  scene,  of  course,  is  necessary  to  the  plot 
because  it  brings  into  action  the  forces  of  retribution ;  yet 
compared  with  the  rest  of  the  play  it  is  long  and  slow.  The 
other  scenes  are  swift  and  telling.  Does  this  scene  contrib- 
ute enough  to  pay  for  the  time  it  occupies?  Is  there  any 
dramatic  reason  why  the  movement  should  be  slow  at  this 

point  ? 

Act  V 

Scene  1.  Study  carefully  the  retribution  which  comes 
upon  Lady  Macbeth  and  compare  it  with  that  of  Macbeth 
further  on.  Is  the  difference  in  keeping  with  the  two  char- 
acters? Consider  whether  it  is  true  that  Macbeth's  con- 
science has  become  blunted,  whereas  Lady  Macbeth's  has 
become  more  keen.  Did  Lady  Macbeth  commit  suicide? 
Explain  every  reference  to  earlier  events  in  Lady  Macbeth's 
words.  Do  her  words,  "Hell  is  murky,"  voice  her  own  fear, 
or  does  she  imagine  herself  arguing  with  Macbeth's  fears  ? 

Scenes  2  and  3.  Scenes  ii  and  iii  prepare  for  the 
catastrophe  by  explaining  the  situation  and  the  attitude 
of  the  opposing  parties.  Write  do^\^l  a  plain  statement  of 
the  contrast.  Macbeth's  state  of  mind  is  especially  worthy 
of  study.  Is  your  pity  for  Macbeth  aroused  ?  If  so,  why  ? 
Is  his  faith  in  the  oracle  firm,  or  does  he  have  secret  mis- 
givings ? 

Scenes  4-8.  In  order  to  represent  war  on  the  stage, 
the  action  must  be  broken  up  into  many  small  scenes.  In 
Shakespeare's  time,  when  there  was  no  shifting  of  scenery 
or  lowering  of  the  curtain,  these  scenes  practically  made  one 
continuous  action.  Scene  v  shows  the  depth  of  Macbeth's 
retribution.  His  moral  nature  is  in  ruins.  The  prize  which 
he  coveted  has  turned  to  dust  in  his  hand.     Life  is  quite 


THE   DRAMA  63 

empty.  Nothing  matters.  So  full  has  he  supped  of  horrors 
that  he  is  in  a  measure  indifferent  to  his  wife's  death.  Lines 
9  ff.  should  be  learned  as  an  expression  of  his  attitude.  What 
is  the  effect  on  the  reader  of  the  return  of  Macbeth's  courage 
in  fight  ? 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Macbeth  and  Lady  Macbeth,  a  Character  Contrast. 

2.  The  Relation  of  Macbeth  to  Holinshed's  Chronicles. 

3.  The  Third  Murderer. 

4.  The  Relation  of  the  Weird  Sisters  to  the  Plot. 

5.  The  Gradual  Degradation  of  Macbeth's  Character. 

(c)    COMEDY 

Comedy  has  to  do,  not  with  the  passions,  but  with  the 
intellect.  It  is  a  thing  of  the  mind  rather  than  of  the  heart. 
The  entrance  of  the  emotions  seems  to  destroy  the  comic 
effect.  The  small  boy  would  not  delight  in  a  dog  fight  if 
he  had  any  sympathy  with  the  suffering  of  the  animals.  He 
is  interested  only  in  their  contortions.  As  his  sympathetic 
nature  develops,  he  ceases  to  find  the  dog  fight  so  wonderfully 
amusing.  And  this  development  of  sympathy  is  what  has 
changed  the  standard  of  the  comic  from  age  to  age.  Fight- 
ing and  cudgeling,  which  so  universally  delighted  the  medi- 
eval playgoer,  is  now  confined  to  cheap  vaudeville.  Mad- 
house scenes,  which  were  comic  in  the  Elizabethan  drama, 
arouse  only  terror  to-day.  Shylock  was  a  comic  character 
at  first,  when  Jews  were  despised  and  persecuted.  Modern 
sympathy  has  made  Shylock  almost  tragic.  A  situation  is 
comic  when  it  contains  the  unexpected  and  incongruous 
without  inspiring  pity  or  terror. 

Ordinarily,  in  a  comedy,  we  expect  (1)  clever  dialogue, 
(2)  odd  characters,  (8)  unexpected  and  incongruous  situa- 
tions, and  (4)  unusual  plot  complications.     These  are  the 


64  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

sources  of  comic  effect.  Puns,  double  meanings,  and  plays 
upon  words  were  unfailing  sources  of  amusement  in  Shake- 
speare's time.  There  is  hardly  anything  that  the  Elizabethan 
mind  delighted  in  more  than  tricks  of  language.  These  are 
sometimes  so  subtle  and  far-fetched  that  unless  the  reader 
is  constantly  on  the  alert  he  misses  much  of  the  fun.  In 
Twelfth  Night,  for  instance,  when  Sir  Andrew  is  disappointed 
with  himself  as  a  lover,  since  he  can  make  no  impression  on 
Sir  Toby's  niece,  whom  he  has  come  to  woo,  the  dialogue 
runs  : 

"  Sir  Andrew.  I  would  I  had  bestowed  that  time  in  the  tongues 
that  I  have  in  fencing,  dancing,  and  bear-baiting.  0,  had  I  but 
followed  the  arts ! 

"  »S'tV  Toby.     Then  hadst  tliou  had  an  excellent  head  of  hair. 

"Sir  Andrew.     Why,  would  that  have  mended  my  hair? 

"Sir  Toby.  Past  question,  for  thou  seest  it  will  not  curl  by  na- 
ture." 

The  point  is  in  the  somewhat  strained  pun  between 
"  tongues  "  (languages)  and  "  tongs  "  (a  curling  iron). 
Shakespeare's  audience  enjoyed  this  heartily.  The  careless 
modern  reader  often  passes  the  joke  by  unnoticed. 

The  comic  effect  of  unusual  characters  is  also  strong  in 
Twelfth  Night.  Sir  Andrew  is  a  good  example.  Sir  Toby 
says  of  him :  "  He's  as  tall  (courageous)  a  man  as  any's  in 
Illyria.  He  \)lays  o'  the  viol-de-gamboj's  and  speaks  three 
or  four  languages  word  for  word  without  book  and  hath  all 
the  good  gifts  of  nature."  But  Sir  Toby  is  lying  :  he  believes 
no  such  thing.  Maria  is  nearer  right  when  she  calls  Sir  An- 
drew a  natural-born  fool.  He  is,  indeed,  a  most  simple  and 
thin-headed  knight  and  as  rank  a  coward  as  ever  ran  from 
danger.  He  is  the  butt  of  all  ridicule  and  never  finds  it  out. 
He  never  has  a  complete  thought  of  his  own.  His  mentality 
is  well  illustrated  wlu'u  he  exclaims  against  Malvolio,  '*  Fie 


THE   DRAMA  65 

on  him,  Jezebel."  Poor  Sir  Andrew!  He  has  picked  up 
somewhere  the  half  idea  that  Jezebel  is  a  term  of  reproach, 
and  that  it  has  som(>thing  to  do  with  pride ;  but  he  has  no 
idea  that  Jezebel  is  the  name  of  a  woman.  And  Malvolio, 
too,  the  vain,  the  pompous,  the  gullible,  how  he  struts  and 
poses  and  makes  himself  ridiculous  upon  the  slightest  provo- 
cation, a  butt  of  merriment  for  the  fine  wit  of  Sir  Toby  and 
Maria !  And  not  less  in  interest  is  Sir  Toby  himself,  a  toper 
and  a  wit,  a  true  kinsman  of  Falstaff . 

And  what  shall  we  say  of  the  comic  situations  where  there 
is  "  discrepancy  between  expectation  and  fulfillment "  ? 
Such  is  the  famous  garden  scene  in  Act  II,  where  Sir  Toby 
and  his  companions  in  hiding  in  the  box-tree  for  the  purpose 
of  having  sport  with  Malvolio,  hear,  like  most  eavesdroppers, 
unexpected  and  unpleasant  things  about  themselves. 

Another  comic  situation  is  the  duel  scene  (Act  III,  Scene 
iv)  where  Sir  Andrew  and  Viola  are  forced  to  cross  swords. 
Sir  Andrew  believes  her  to  be  ''  a  very  devil  in  private  brawl, 
souls  and  bodies  hath  he  divorced  three."  And  Viola,  poor 
lady  youth,  thinks  Sir  Andrew  "  the  most  skillful,  bloody, 
and  fatal  opposite  that  could  possibly  be  found  in  any  part 
of  Illyria."  They  approach  each  other  gingerly,  looking  pale 
and  glancing  about  for  some  means  of  escape,  shuddering 
as  the  rapiers  come  near  enough  to  clash.  The  incongruity 
of  it  all  produces  the  comedy. 

Last  of  all,  the  plot  of  the  play  is  comic.  A  typical  comedy 
has  a  structure  of  its  own  different  from  the  tragic  structure. 
It  is  not  a  passion  struggle  rising  to  a  climax  and  reverting 
to  a  catastrophe,  but  an  entanglement  of  various  threads  of 
story,  a  complication  of  experiences  developing  a  tangle  of 
mistakes  and  misunderstandings,  until  the  confusion  is  set 
right  at  the  end.  Twelfth  Night  represents,  not  regular  or 
pure  comedy,  but  the  type  known  as  "  romantic  comedy," 


66  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

in  which  the  main  plot  is  a  love  story  and  the  subplot  a  comic 
intrigue.  The  first  act  of  Twelfth  Night  presents  two  inde- 
pendent situations :  the  love  affairs  of  Viola  and  the  Duke 
and  the  comic  intrigues  of  Sir  Toby  and  Maria.  In  the 
former,  a  triangular  love  situation  is  set  u]^  :  the  Duke  is  in 
love  with  Olivia,  Olivia  with  Viola,  Viola  with  the  Duke. 
In  the  latter,  the  witty,  rollicking  Sir  Toby,  the  simple  empty- 
headed  Sir  Andrew,  and  the  clever  Maria  —  an  incongruous 
group  in  the  house  of  mourning  —  begin  to  plan  their  prac- 
tical jokes.  In  Act  II  these  elements  of  plot  are  developed 
side  by  side.  In  the  main  plot  the  love  of  Viola  for  the  Duke 
and  the  love  of  Olivia  for  Viola  are  emphasized  and  contrasted. 
In  the  subplot  the  intrigue  against  Malvolio  takes  the  promi- 
nent place.  A  third  episode  is  promised  by  the  introduction 
of  Antonio  and  Sebastian.  In  the  third  act  the  first  three 
scenes  are  devoted  to  these  three  lines  of  plot  in  turn :  (1) 
Olivia  betrays  her  love  for  Viola,  (2)  Malvolio  makes  a  fool 
of  himself  before  his  lady,  and  Sir  Toby  persuades  Sir 
Andrew  to  challenge  Viola,  (3)  Sebastian  and  Antonio  ar- 
rive in  the  town.  The  fourth  scene  presents  the  entangle- 
ment ;  the  challenge  is  made.  Sir  Andrew  and  Viola  are 
brought  together  as  "  most  fearful  and  bloody  opposites," 
complicating  the  two  important  stories,  and  presently 
Antonio's  arrival  and  interference  bring  in  the  third  plot 
element  to  increase  the  general  confusion.  In  the  short 
fourth  act  the  highest  point  of  complication  is  reached  in  the 
meeting  and  marriage  of  Olivia  and  Sebastian.  This  act  also 
contains  the  climax  of  the  practical  joke  upon  Malvolio, 
when  the  poor  steward,  in  durance  for  madness,  is  baited  by 
Sir  Toby  and  the  clown.  The  fifth  act  contains  the  read- 
justment in  a  single  scene,  elaborately  developed.  All  the 
threads  of  plot  are  presented  in  complete  entanglement ; 
then  the  final  readjustment  is  made. 


THE   DRAMA  67 

The  general  comic  scheme  may  be  outlined  as  follows : 

Act     I.      Introduction  of  Plot  Elements. 

Act    II.     Indei)endent  Development  of  these  Elements. 

Act  III.     Entanglement. 

Act  IV.     Highest  Complication. 

Act    V.     Disentanglement  and  Readjustment. 

TWELFTH  NIGHT 
Suggestions  for  Study 

Act  I 

Notice  the  relation  of  the  scenes  as  developing  an  artistic 
introductory  act.  The  first  scene  is  devoted  to  the  Duke, 
the  second  to  Viola,  the  third  to  Olivia's  household;  the 
fourth  brings  the  Duke  and  Viola  together  •  the  fifth  shows 
the  relations  of  all  the  characters  and  explains  the  triangular 
love  complication. 

Scene  1.  This  scene  has  two,  possibly  three,  dramatic 
purposes.  What  are  they?  Is  the  Duke's  love  affected  or 
real  ?  What  particular  passages  support  your  conclusion  ? 
Explain  the  play  upon  words  in  lines  17  ff.  Does  the  Duke 
shift  his  metaphor  ? 

Scene  2.  Explain  the  plays  upon  words.  Are  Scenes  i 
and  ii  comic  ?  If  not,  what  kind  of  scenes  are  they  ?  What 
particular  lines  indicate  Viola's  character  ? 

Scene  3.  Explain  the  tricks  of  language.  Point  out 
incongruous  traits  in  the  characters  of  Sir  Toby  and  Sir 
Andrew.     Explain  the  comic  effects  of  character  contrasts. 

Scene  4.  Even  this  small  scene  is  carefully  planned 
with  an  introduction,  a  situation,  and  a  conclusion. 

Scene  5.  The  main  exposition  scene.  What  points  of 
plot  does  it  develop?     Analyze  the  comic  elements.     Ex- 


68  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

plain  all  the  word  play  of  the  clown.  Wherein  is  Sir  Toby 
comic  ?  Wherein  is  the  dialogue  between  Viola  and  Olivia 
"unexpected  and  incongruous"?  Why  does  the  author 
change  from  prose  to  verse  ?  Where  is  the  climax  of  the 
scene  ?  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  last  ten  lines  of  the 
scene  ? 

Act  II 

The  different  elements  of  the  plot  are  treated  in  separate 
scenes.  There  are,  as  yet,  no  marked  entanglements.  We 
have  a  poetical  romantic  love  story  running  side  by  side  with 
a  comic  intrigue.     This  is  typical  Romantic  comedy. 

Scene  1.  Critics  say,  "This  scene  is  clearly  misplaced." 
Find  out  why.  It  has  to  do  with  the  time  sequence  of  the 
play.  Explain  the  plot  signifieance  of  this  scene,  especially 
lines  44-48. 

Scene  2.  We  knew  before  that  Olivia  loved  Viola  and 
that  she  sent  the  ring.  In  what  way,  then,  does  this  scene 
advance  the  story  ?     What  is  the  effect  upon  Viola  ? 

Scene  3.  Analyze  for  comic  effects  the  dialogue,  the 
character  contrasts,  the  situation.  How  does  the  scene 
affect  the  plot  ? 

Scene  4.  This  scene  has  been  called  the  finest  in  the 
play.  Why  ?  What  are  the  most  poetic  passages  ?  Where 
is  the  pathos  most  touching?  Do  we  learn  anything  new 
about  the  character  of  Viola  or  of  the  Duke  ? 

Scene  5.  Analyze  the  comic  effects,  explaining  especially 
wherein  the  situation  itself  is  comic.  Explain  what  makes 
Malvolio  a  comic  character. 

Act  III 

Scene  1.  Why  are  Sir  Toby  and  Sir  Andrew  brought  into 
this  scene  ?  Trace  the  development  of  the  scene  toward  an 
emotional  climax.     What  is  the  effect  of  beginning  with  a 


THE    DRAMA  69 

conversation  between  Viola  antl  the  clown  ?  Where,  in  this 
scene,  is  a  good  description  of  th(>  clown  or  fool  of  Shake- 
speare's time  ? 

Scene  2.  Explain  how  this  scene  prepares  for  an  en- 
tanglement between  the  main  plot  and  the  minor  plots. 

Scene  3.     How  does  this  scene  advance  the  p)ot  ? 

Scene  4.  This  is  one  of  the  principal  complication 
scenes.  Explain  in  detail  how  the  various  threads  of  plot 
are  here  brought  together  and  entangled.  What  is  the 
purpose  of  the  first  three  lines  ?  What  makes  the  conversa- 
tion between  Malvolio  and  Olivia  amusing  ?  Be  sure  not  to 
miss  any  of  the  double  meanings  and  unexpected  quirks  of 
language  (e.g.,  line  175).  Try  to  visualize  the  scene.  No  one 
reads  drama  well  until  he  can  imagine  the  action.  Deter- 
mine how  you  would  act  the  part  of  Sir  Andrew  or  of  Viola 
throughout  the  scene. 

Act  IV 

Explain  how,  in  this  act,  both  the  main  plot  and  the 
minor  plot  are  still  further  developed  and  entangled.  Has 
Scene  ii  been  prepared  for  earlier  in  the  play  ? 

Act  V 

Scene  1.  The  systematic  structure  of  this  readjustment 
scene  should  be  carefully  analyzed.  Its  purpose  is  to  dis- 
entangle the  various  threads  of  plot.  After  an  introductory 
conversation  between  Duke  antl  Clown,  the  Antonio  plot 
episode  is  introduced  and  its  complication  emphasized.  At 
the  climax  of  this  little  scene,  Olivia  enters  to  emphasize  the 
misunderstandings  of  the  main  plot.  When  this  has  reached 
its  height,  Sir  Andrew  rushes  in  with  a  bloody  coxcomb, 
followed  by  Sir  Toby,  thus  bringing  into  the  scene  the  comic 
underplot.  When  everything  is  thus  ready  for  the  adjust- 
ment,   Sebastian   enters.     The    bringing   of   Sebastian   and 


70  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Viola  together  upon  the  stage  at  once  clears  up  all  the 
difficulties.  To  round  off  the  scene  and  the  play,  Malvolio 
is  released  and  comes  upon  the  stage  for  a  moment.  All 
the  incidents  are  thus  brought  to  a  conclusion,  and  all  the 
characters  disposed  of.  Are  there  any  inconsistencies  ?  If 
so,  do  they  interfere  with  the  dramatic  effect  ? 

Twelfth  Night  has  more  songs  and  fragments  of  songs  than 
any  other  of  Shakespeare's  plays.  Was  this  to  be  expected? 
Compare  the  title  and  the  season. 

Subjects  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Sir  Toby  and  Sir  Andrew,  a  Character  Contrast. 

2.  The  Character  of  Malvolio  illustrated  from  the  Play. 

3.  A  Visit  to  an  Elizabethan  Theater. 

4.  The  Festival  of  Twelfth  Night. 

5.  Tragedy  and  Comedy  compared. 

6.  The  Most  Comic  Situation  in  Twelfth  Night. 

A   MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S   DREAM 

A  Midsummer  Night^s  Dream  is  not  a  regular  romantic 
comedy  like  Twelfth  Night.  Scholars  are  very  well  agreed 
that  it  was  written  originally  not  for  presentation  on  the 
public  stage,  but  for  private  performance  at  a  wedding  or 
similar  festive  occasion ;  and  the  occasion  gives  a  clew  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  play.  Naturally  the  poet  adapted 
his  material  to  the  time  and  place,  and  produced  not  a 
conventional  stage  play,  but  a  court  performance  with  many 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  court  mask.  It  is,  indeed,  a 
mask  play. 

The  mask  had  long  been  a  popular  court  entertainment. 
It  originated  in  the  early  masquerade  dance  which  was  "  one 
of  the  ordinary  diversions  of  all  European  courts,  the  Eng- 
lish among  the  rest."     An  early  form  is  described  as  follows  : 


I 


THE    DRAMA  71 

"The  'disguisers'  were  to  be  introduced  into  the  hall  by  torch- 
bearers,  and  on  their  entrance  the  minstrels  were  to  begin  to  play : 
if  there  were  women  disgiiisers,  they  were  to  dance  first,  and  then 
stand  aside;  then  the  men  were  to  dance  'suche  daunces  as  they 
be  appointed,'  and  stand  upon  the  other  side.  After  this,  'the 
Morris  to  come  in  incontinent  as  is  apointed,  yf  any  be  ordeynid. 
And  when  the  saide  Morris  arrives  in  the  midist  of  the  hall,  then  the 
said  minstrallis  to  play  the  daunces  that  is  appointid  for  theim.' 
This  done,  'than  the  gentillmen  to  com  unto  the  women  to  taike  oon 
by  thand,  and  daunce  suche  base  (slow  and  stately)  daunces  as  is 
apointed  the5'^m ;  and  that  done,  than  to  daunce  such  rounds  as 
shall  be  appointed  them  to  daunce  togeder  by  the  maister  of  the 
revills." 

The  disguisers  were  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the  court. 
They  danced  the  slow  and  stately  dances  which  later  became 
the  dignified  mask  proper.  The  Morris  dancers  were  pro- 
fessionals. They  danced  the  lively  galliards  and  corantos 
which  developed  later  into  the  comic  antimask.  Definite 
stage  settings  were  introduced  by  wheeling  into  the  hall  a 
pageant  wagon  converted  into  a  castle,  mountain,  or  ship, 
as  the  scene  required.  The  disguisers  came  to  represent 
definite  characters,  who  furnished  a  story,  usually  mytholog- 
ical, for  the  scene.  The  result  was  a  dignified  mask  proper 
of  pageantry,  dancing,  singing,  and  poetic  recital,  presented 
by  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the  court,  and  a  comic  anti- 
mask  often  farcical,  serving  to  set  off  by  contrast  the  dignity 
and  beauty  of  the  mask  proper. 

A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  has  the  general  effect  of 
a  mask.  The  center  of  interest  lies  not  so  much  in  the 
story  of  the  lovers  as  in  the  contrast  between  the  dancing, 
singing,  pageantry,  and  poetry  of  the  fairies  and  the  low 
comedy  of  Bottom  and  his  fellow-tradesmen.  The  fairies 
produce  the  efi'ect  of  a  beautiful  mask  proper ;  Bottom  and 


72  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

his  company,  the  effect  of  a  comic  antimask.  The  whole 
is  a  picture  of  the  imaginative  and  the  commonplace  in 
contrast.  The  fairies  embody  the  fancy  which  soars  and 
sings.  The  farce  comedy  represents  the  commonplace, 
unimaginative  mind,  which  cannot  rise  above  the  things 
of  sense. 

Perhaps  this  is  the  reason  for  shadowy  treatment  of  the 
lovers.  These  characters  are  only  sketched.  We  do  not 
enter  into  sympathy  with  their  fortunes  and  misfortunes ; 
they  are  amusing  rather  than  pathetic.  Had  these  characters 
been  more  carefully  drawn  and  their  loves  sincerely  and  sym- 
pathetically treated,  they  would  have  been  the  center  of 
interest,  and  the  play  would  have  lost  its  dreamlike  mask 
effect.  By  excluding  the  emotions  and  treating  the  love 
episode  in  a  purely  comic  manner,  the  unity  of  tone  is  pre- 
served. Moreover,  the  half-real  treatment  of  the  lovers 
coming  in  between  the  pure  fancy  of  the  fairies  and  the 
downright  commonplaces  of  the  tradesmen  helps  to  blend 
the  various  elements  of  the  story  and  to  give  artistic  cohe- 
rence to  an  otherwise  incoherent  dream. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Act  I 

Scene  1.  The  wedding  of  Theseus  and  Hippol3i:a  fur- 
nishes a  setting  for  the  play  — •  a  kind  of  frame  for  the  picture. 
The  note  of  poetry  is  sounded  at  once,  and  we  are  told  that 
the  purpose  of  the  play  is  to 

"  Awake  the  pert  and  nimble  spirit  of  mirth." 

Why  do  we  not  sympathize  with  the  lovers  ?  Do  their  loves 
seem  real  ?  Do  they  speak  naturally  and  sincerely  (see  lines 
168-178)  ?  Are  the  characters  of  the  lovers  distinctly  drawn 
or  are  they  shadowy  ?     Explain. 


THE    DRAMA  73 

Scene  2.  Why  should  Bottom  and  his  company  be 
made  more  real  than  the  lovers  ?  Cite  particular  passages  to 
show  that  the  tradesmen  are  totally  lacking  in  imagination. 
Cite  passages  where  humor  arises  out  of  the  language.  Name 
Bottom's  characteristics  and  indicate  passages  to  illustrate 
them. 

Act  II 

Scene  1.  Contrast  the  poetry  and  pageantry  of  this  scene 
with  the  downright  realism  of  the  preceding.  The  fairies 
enter,  tlancing.  Explain  how  the  meter  of  their  song  is 
suited  to  dance  movement.  Which  seem  to  you  to  be  the 
finest  poetic  passages  ?  Memorize  them.  What  is  the  plot 
purpose  of  the  scene  ? 

Scene  2.  Explain  how  this  scene  develops  the  complica- 
tion between  the  fairy  story  and  the  story  of  the  four  lovers. 
Why  is  love  represented  as  only  a  passing  fancy,  subject  ta 
mere  whim  ? 

Act  III 

Scene  1.  What  is  the  plot  purpose  of  this  scene?  Ana- 
lyze the  comic  effects  as  to  (1)  language,  (2)  character,  and 
(3)  situation. 

Scene  2.  Here  the  complication  reaches  its  height.  The 
tone  of  the  scene  is  almost  purely  comic.  Emphasis  is  laid 
upon  the  misunderstandings  and  incongruities,  the  intellec- 
tual interest,  not  upon  the  distress  of  the  lovers,  the  emotional 
interest.  Compare  the  conventional  and  superficial  love 
of  Helena  and  Hermia  with  the  simple  sincere  love  of  Viola 
in  Twelfth  Night.  What  makes  the  quarreling  comi(!  rather 
than  tragic  or  pathetic  ?  Does  the  management  of  the  scene 
toward  the  end  seem  mechanical  ?  Is  it  on  that  account 
anv  the  less  comical  ? 


74  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Act  IV 

Scene  1.  This  readjustment  scene  brings  to  a  close  the 
stories  of  the  lovers  and  the  fairies.  In  what  respect  is  this 
at  variance  with  the  regular  scheme  of  comedy  ?  (Cf .  Twelfth 
Night.)  There  is  no  complication  between  the  love  comedy 
and  the  farce  comedy.  They  are  connected  by  the  fairies 
only,  who  appear  in  both.  The  fairies  thus  become  the 
center  of  the  plot.  The  Theseus-Hippolyta  story  is  only 
a  setting  or  frame. 

Scene  2.  A  transition  scene.  Explain  how  it  connects 
with  what  precedes  and  how  it  prepares  for  what  follows. 

Act   V 

Scene  1.  Indicate  passages  which  emphasize  the  lack 
of  imagination  in  the  tradesmen  actors.  Memorize  lines 
7-17.  What  makes  the  speech  of  Pyramus  (lines  169  ff.) 
comic  ?  When  Pyramus  attempts  an  emotional  or  imagina- 
tive flight,  notice  how  hard  and  flat  is  his  fall  (see  lines  187- 
190).  Analyze  the  ludicrous  effects  of  the  dying  words  of 
Pyramus  and  Thisbe.  Is  this  comedy  or  broad  farce  ? 
Show  the  difference  by  comparison  with  other  comic  scenes 
in  Shakespeare.  Does  Act  V  help  or  harm  the  artistic  unity 
of  the  play  ?     Give  reasons. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Report 

1.  Dancing  and  Singing  in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream. 

2.  The  Character  of  Bottom. 

3.  Robin  Goodfellow. 

4.  The  Plan  of  an  Elizabethan  Theater. 

5.  Characteristics  of  the  Fairies. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  ESSAY 

(a)     THE  INFORMAL   ESSAY 

Dr.  Johnson  spoke  of  the  essay  as  "  a  loose  sally  of  the 
mind ;  an  irregular  indigested  piece ;  not  a  regular  and 
orderly  composition."  In  so  far  as  this  implies  that  the  essay 
has  no  purpose  and  no  plan,  it  is  an  unsatisfactory  definition  ; 
for  the  best  of  even  the  informal  essays  have  definite  themes 
carefully  developed.  It  emphasizes,  however,  an  essential 
characteristic  of  the  informal  essay,  its  easy  spontaneous 
manner.  Such  essays  consist  of  humorous  and  pathetic, 
sometimes  whimsical,  comments  upon  men  and  things,  upon 
morals  and  manners ;  informal  criticisms  of  life  by  men  who 
have  a  keen,  clear  vision  and  a  personal  charm  of  thought 
and  style.  Mr.  Lobban  defines  this  type  of  essay  as  "  a 
short  discursive  article  on  any  literarj^  philosophical,  or 
social  subject,  viewed  from  a  personal  or  a  historical  stand- 
point." It  is  not  an  exhaustive  treatise,  scientific,  philo- 
sophical, or  literary.  The  purpose  is  not  so  much  to  inform 
as  to  entertain  and  stimulate,  to  present  ideas  from  a  new 
personal  point  of  view,  to  develop  a  more  refined  and  dis- 
criminating way  of  looking  at  life.  The  principal  charm  lies 
usuall}'  in  the  personality  of  the  writer.  He  takes  the  reader 
into  his  confidence  and,  in  a  simple  informal  way,  gives  him 
discriminating  comments  on  whatever  seems  to  the  \\Titcr 
most  interesting  in  nature  and  life  and  books.  He  is,  as  Mr. 
Lobban  says,  "  at  once  a  rambler,  a  spectator,  a  tattler,  and 

75 


76  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

a  connoisseur  "  ;  but  he  rambles  with  a  purpose  ;  he  is  a  keen 
spectator,  a  discriminating  tattler,  a  genuine  connoisseur. 

The  informal  essay  first  became  popular  in  England  in  the 
early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  through  the  influence 
of  Addison  and  Steele,  whose  essays  in  The  Tatler  and  The 
Spectator  reflect  the  brilliant  but  superficial  life  cf  that  time. 
It  was  a  pleasure-seeking  age,  for  the  reaction  against  the 
restraints  of  Puritanism  was  still  strong.  Society  was  com- 
posed largely  of  "  vivacious,  restless,  superficial  triflers." 
Gentlemen  of  quality  frequented  the  fashionable  promenades 
in  the  morning,  dined  with  friends  at  the  tavern,  lounged 
and  gossiped  in  the  coffee-houses,  and  ended  the  day  at  the 
theater  or  gambling  table.  Fine  ladies  lay  abed  until  noon, 
spent  the  afternoon  dressing  and  driving,  and  played  cards 
till  midnight.  Countless  beaus,  dressed  in  bright  colors 
and  furnished  with  cane  and  snuff-box,  paraded  the  Mall  and 
frequented  the  drawing-rooms,  where  they  were  petted  and 
adored  by  the  ladies.  Groups  of  politicians  and  literary 
men,  with  hardly  less  leisure,  gathered  in  the  coffee-houses 
and  clubs  to  discuss  the  gossip  of  the  town,  the  newest 
drama,  the  latest  book,  the  most  startling  gains  and  losses 
at  the  gambling  table,  the  latest  news  of  the  drawing-rooms, 
the  probable  fortunes  of  political  parties.  (For  further 
information,  see  John  Ashton's  Social  Life  in  the  Reign  of 
Queen  Anne.) 

With  this  life,  Addison  and  Steele  had  intimate  relations. 
What  the  Spectator  (Addison)  says  in  the  account  of  himself 
is  largely  true  of  both.  There  was  hardly  a  place  of  general 
resort  where  one  or  the  other  did  not  make  an  appearance. 
They  met  with  the  literary  men,  who,  since  Dryden's  time, 
had  gathered  at  Will's.  They  smoked  their  pipes  at  Child's 
with  physicians,  philosophers,  and  clergymen.  They  were 
familiar  with  the  Whigs  at  St.  James's  Coffee-house  and  with 


THE   ESSAY  77 

the  Tories  at  The  ('ocoa-Tree.  Th(\y  mingled  with  the  law- 
yers and  scholars  at  The  Grecian  and  listened  to  the  mer- 
chants and  stockjobbers  at  Jonathan's.  Wherever  they  saw 
a  cluster  of  people  they  mingled  with  them,  looked  upon 
their  vices  and  virtues  with  keen  eyes,  antl  judged  them  with 
sane  and  sympathetic  minds.  Addison  was  perhaps  the 
keener;  Steele,  the  more  sympathetic.  The  point  of  view  of 
both  was  wholesome,  and  their  fine  tactful  humor  irresistible. 
Their  wholesome  wit  furnishes  perhaps  the  best  possible  ap- 
proach for  the  student  who  wishes  a  sympathetic  picture  of 
English  life  in  the  early  eighteenth  century. 

To  insight  and  sympathy  is  added  the  charm  of  a  simple 
and  easy  literary  style.  Addison  in  particular  was  a  great 
literary  artist.  His  mastery  of  the  English  language  has 
made  his  writings  famous  as  models  of  style.  Dr.  Johnson 
said,  "  Whoever  wishes  to  attain  an  English  style,  familiar 
but  not  coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  ostentatious,  must  give 
his  days  and  nights  to  the  study  of  Addison." 

THE  SIR  ROGER   DE  COVERLEY  PAPERS 

Special  interest  attaches  to  the  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley 
Papers.  They  are  not  only  interpretations  of  life  and 
models  of  style ;  they  form  a  connected  series  which  grad- 
ually develops  character  and  follows  the  fortunes  of  a  group 
of  persons  like  a  story.  Each  essay  has  its  own  indepen- 
dent laugh  at  folly  and  vice,  but  it  also  unites  with  the  rest 
to  develop  the  common  interest  of  character  and  incident. 
Indeed  the  series  has  been  called,  not  without  reason,  the 
forerunner  of  the  novel  of  real  life. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

I.  The  Spectator's  Account  of  Himself.  This  sketch 
of  Addison  by  his  own  hand  should  be  compared  with  parts 


78  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

of  Macaulay's  account  in  his  essay  on  Addison,  especially 
paragraphs  7-9,  63-64.  Locate  the  various  coffee-houses 
on  a  map  of  London  (see  Baedeker's  London).  Of  these 
coffee-houses,  Ashton  says  in  Social  Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne:  "The  coffee-houses  of  the  eighteenth  century  formed 
a  neutral  meeting  ground  for  men  of  all  conditions;  no 
decently  attired  person  was  refused  admittance,  provided 
he  laid  down  his  penny  at  the  bar.  The  excellent  rules  in 
force  prevented  any  ill  effects  from  this  admixture  of  classes. 
If  a  man  swore,  he  was  fined  Is.,  and  if  he  began  to  quarrel, 
he  was  fined  'dishes'  round.  Discussion  on  religion  was 
prohibited,  no  card-playing  or  dicing  was  allowed,  and  no 
wager  might  be  made  exceeding  5s.  These  were  the  simple 
rules  generally  used,  and  if  they  were  only  complied  with, 
all  must  have  felt  the  benefit  of  such  a  mild  despotism." 

IL  Description  of  Club  Members.  What  classes  of 
society  are  typified  in  the  club  members?  No  particular 
individuals  are  meant.  Addison  says  {Spectator,  No.  262), 
"  I  write  after  such  a  manner  that  nothing  may  be  interpreted 
as  aimed  at  private  persons."  Again  (No.  34),  "I  must, 
however,  entreat  every  particular  person  who  does  me  the 
honor  to  be  a  reader  of  this  paper  never  to  think  himself, 
or  any  of  his  friends  or  enemies,  aimed  at  in  what  is  said; 
for  I  promise  him  never  to  draw  a  faulty  character  which 
does  not  fit  at  least  a  thousand  people."  In  the  description 
of  Sir  Roger,  what  facts  show  (1)  his  strength  of  character, 
(2)  his  humanity,  (3)  his  amusing  weakness?  Why  do  we 
not  despise  him  for  his  weakness  ? 

Write  a  short  account  of  one  of  your  own  friends  and  com- 
pare it  ^vith  these  sketches.  Point  out  th(^  use  of  balance 
in  the  description  of  the  lawyer.  This  paper  was  written 
by  Steele.  Is  the  style  as  smooth  and  easy  as  the  style  of 
Addison  ? 


THE   ESSAY  79 

III.  Sir  Roger's  Opinion  of  True  Wisdom.  Cite 
passages  in  the  essay  which  show  the  age  to  have  been  super- 
ficial, conventional,  and  innnoral,  more  concerned  with  "wit 
and  sense"  tiian  with  "honesty  and  virtue."  Is  it  true  that 
"the  most  polite  ages  are  the  least  virtuous  "  ?     Give  reasons. 

IV.  Sir  Roger  at  the  Club.  Wliat  trait  of  human 
nature  is  here  satirized  ?  Explain  how  Addison  turns  the 
laugh  upon  each  character  in  turn.  Begin  to  make  a  list 
of  Sir  Roger's  characteristics  with  references  to  passages 
which  illustrate  them.  Compare  Addison's  point  of  view  as 
a  humorist  with  that  of  Swift  in  Gulliver's  Travels.  Swift's 
satire  is  bitter.  He  hated  and  scorned  mankind.  (See 
Macaulay's  Essay  on  Addison,  paragraphs  83-87.)  How  did 
Addison's  London  differ  from  a  modern  American  city  ? 

V.  Sir  Roger  in  his  Country  House.  The  satire  on 
the  country  clergyman  shows  Addison's  characteristic 
method ;  he  does  not  say  directly  that  the  parson  is  narrow- 
minded  and  not  intelligent  enough  to  compose  a  sermon 
worth  listening  to,  but  Sir  Roger's  recommendation  takes  it 
for  granted.  Watch  for  other  illustrations  of  this  sly  method 
of  satire.  How  does  the  country  life  here  described  differ 
from  country  life  in  America  to-day  ? 

Examine  the  paragraph  structure.  Every  paragraph 
should  have  its  definite  topic,  and  every  statement  in  that 
paragraph  should  help  to  make  the  topic  clear.  The  test 
of  unity  in  a  paragraph  is  to  sum  up  the  entire  thought  in 
a  single  statement.  For  instance,  the  topic  of  paragraph  2  is. 
"Sir  Roger's  family  consists  of  sober  and  staid  persons." 
Every  sentence  in  the  paragraph  helps  to  develop  this  idea. 
Criticize  the  second  sentence  in  the  essay. 

VI.  The  Coverlet  Household.  W^here  is  the  moral 
purpose  of  this  essay  stated  ?  What  does  the  essay  contrib- 
ute  to   our   knowledge    of    Sir    Roger's    character?     (See 


80  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

especially  the  last  ten  lines.)  Is  he  lacking  in  dignity  and 
authority?  Is  he  modest?  Why  should  the  Spectator  be 
a  "little  dissatisfied"  with  the  picture? 

VII.  Sir  Roger  and  Will  Wimble.  Is  Will  Wimble 
appropriately  named?  (See  Dictionary.)  Select  three  or 
four  adjectives  which  best  describe  him.  When  does  Addi- 
son cease  to  be  satirical  and  become  earnest  ? 

VIII.  A  Sunday  at  Sir  Roger's.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  this  essay  ?  Explain  its  plan.  Find  examples  of  contrast. 
Add  to  your  notes  on  Sir  Roger's  character  something  about 
his  eccentricities. 

IX.  Sir  Roger  and  the  Widow.  What  is  the  effect  of 
repeating  so  many  times  that  the  widow  "has  the  finest  hand 
of  any  woman  in  the  world"?  What  hints  are  here  given 
of  the  ideal  of  womanhood  in  that  age  ?  What  is  the  effect 
of  the  broken  sentence  structure  in  the  paragraph  next  to 
the  last?  Why  did  Sir  Roger  fail  in  his  wooing?  Are 
the  comic  effects  similar  to  those  in  the  comedies  of  Shake- 
speare ? 

X.  Bodily  Exercise.  Notice  the  plan  :  first  there  is  an 
explanation  of  the  two  kinds  of  Ijodily  exertion,  work  and 
play ;  then  the  relation  of  these  to  bodily  health  and  mental 
vigor;  then  specific  instances  from  the  life  of  Sir  Roger; 
and,  finally,  the  conclusion  that  one  should  take  daily  exer- 
cise. Make  an  outline  under  headings  and  subheadings. 
What  is  the  relation  of  this  essay  to  the  series?  Is  the 
argument  weak  at  any  point  ? 

XI.  The  Coverley  Hunt.  Are  the  characteristics  here 
given  of  Sir  Roger  inconsistent  with  what  we  learn  of  him  in 
other  essays?  (See  paragraph  2.)  What  is  the  advantage 
in  having  the  Spectator  "withdraw  to  a  rising  ground"? 
Com]:)are  the  structure  of  this  essay  with  Essays  VIII  and  X. 
Budgell  wrote  this  essay.     Compare  the  style  with  the  work 


THE   ESSAY  '  81 

of  Addison.      Detormino,    for   example,    why  paragraph   3 
seems  awkward  in  comparison  with  Addison's  work. 

XII.  The  Coverley  Witch.  Mr.  H.  V.  Abbott,  in  liis 
edition  of  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers,  cites  the  fact  that 
just  before  The  Spectator  began  to  be  published,  two  women 
were  executed  in  Northampton  for  having  dealings  with  evil 
spirits,  and  that  in  1716  a  Mrs.  Hicks  and  her  daughter 
were  hanged  at  Huntingdon  for  soiling  their  souls  to  the 
devil,  making  their  neighbors  vomit  pins,  and  raising  a 
storm  so  that  a  certain  ship  was  almost  lost.  Is  Addison 
in  earnest  at  the  ])eginning?  What  do  we  learn  from  the 
essay  about  the  supposed  power  of  witches  ? 

XIII.  Sir  Roger's  Discourse  on  Love.  Written  by 
Steele.  Have  you  a  clear  idea  of  the  widow's  character? 
Can  you  distinguish  any  difference  in  style  between  No.  XIII, 
paragraph  1  (Steele's),  No..  XI,  paragraph  3  (Budgell's),  and 
No.  XII,  paragraph  2  (Addison's)  ?  How  are  you  impressed 
by  the  words  of  Mr.  William  as  he  looks  into  the  fountain  ? 

XV.  Sir  Roger  at  the  Assizes.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  this  essay?  Note  the  humorous  passages  and  determine 
what  makes  them  humorous.  Is  the  last  paragraph  neces- 
sary for  a  good  ending  ? 

XVI.  Sir  Roger  and  Party  Spirit.  Party  spirit  was 
very  strong  in  Addison's  time.  The  Tories  still  believed 
in  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  were  ardent  supporters  of  the 
Stuart  line,  plotting  even  then  to  bring  the  Stuarts  back  to 
the  throne.  They  were  distinctly  the  aristocratic  party. 
They  believed  the  government  should  be  run  by  those  who 
owned  the  large  landed  estates  and  who  had  received  their 
wealth  and  social  standing  through  a  long  line  of  inheritance. 
The  Whigs,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  party  of  popular 
liberty.  They  had  brought  about  the  Revolution  of  1688, 
and  had  established  William  on  the  throne  as  a  constitutional 

o 


82  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

sovereign.  Their  support  came  largely  from  the  commercial 
classes  and  the  dissenting  religious  sects.  Queen  Anne, 
although  she  owed  her  crown  to  the  Whigs,  was  really  a  Tory 
at  heart,  and  exerted  her  influence  wherever  possible  in  favor 
of  Tory  measures.  The  feeling  between  the  two  parties  was 
very  bitter.  Addison  was,  from  beginning  to  end,  a  consis- 
tent Whig.  He  was  never  bitter,  however.  He  practiced 
the  preaching  of  this  essay  except  in  regard  to  non-partisan- 
ship. 

Write  a  short  argument  advocating  partisanship  in  poli- 
tics to-day.  Compare  the  treatment  of  party  spirit  in 
Washington's  Farewell  Address  (paragraphs  20-25). 

XVn.  Sir  Roger  and  the  Gypsies.  Does  Sir  Roger 
believe  at  all  in  the  Gypsies?  Indicate  the  humorous  pas- 
sages. Write  in  your  own  words  the  story  of  the  boy  stolen 
by  the  gypsies,  and  compare  your  account  with  Addison's: 
Notice  the  beauty  and  ease  of  Addison's  sentences.  If  your 
own  version  seems  awkward  in  comparison,  examine  care- 
fully the  sentence  structure. 

XVIII.  Why  the  Spectator  leaves  Coverley  Hall. 
How  does  this  essay  fit  into  the  series?  Is  paragraph  1  a 
suitable  introduction?  Why?  Will  Honeycomb's  idea  of 
the  country  was  the  prevailing  idea  in  Addison's  time, 
Addison  himself  seems  to  have  been  too  thoroughly  city 
bred  to  enjoy  country  life. 

XIX.  The  Spectator's  Experience  in  a  Stage  Coach. 
The  Latin  motto  originally  published  at  the  head  of  this 
essay  means,  "He  who  does  not  see  what  the  occasion  de- 
mands, or  who  has  no  regard  for  his  companions,  is  called 
impertinent."  Addison  is  preaching  etiquette  through 
Ephraim. 

XX.  Street  Cries  of  London.  Test  the  paragraph 
unity  by  framing  for  each  paragraph  a  single  statement 


THE   ESSAY  83 

expressing   the   complete   thought    of   the   paragraph.     Do 
you  note  any  sly  thrusts  of  satire  ? 

XXI.  SiK  Roger  in  Town.  The  motto  of  this  essay  is, 
"In  our  age  a  most  rare  thing  is  simplicity."  Compare  with 
this  essay  the  Christmas  stories  in  Irving's  Sketch-Book. 

XXII.  Sir  Roger  in  Westminster  Abbey.  A  visit 
to  Westminster  Abbey  is  a  test  of  a  man's  character  and  at- 
tainments: he  sees  just  what  he  is  qualified  to  see  by  experi- 
ence and  reading.  Compare  Addison's  account  in  Spectator, 
No.  26,  and  Irving's  "Westminster  Abbey"  in  The  Skeich- 
Book.  Note  by  comparison  what  Sir  Roger  sees  and  what 
he  does  not  see ;  his  limitations  will  thus  become  clear. 

XXIII.  Sir  Roger  at  the  Theater.  The  charmingly 
ignorant  and  naive  way  in  which  Sir  Roger  is  made  to  expose 
himself  shows  Addison's  humor  at  its  best.  Point  out  partic- 
ularly noteworthy  passages. 

XXIV.  Will  Honeycomb's  Love-making.  Explain 
how  the  essential  sincerity  of  Sir  Roger's  character  is  brought 
out  by  contrasting  his  love  affair  with  the  love  affair  of  Will 
Honeycomb.  Is  Will's  boasted  knowledge  of  the  "female 
world"  consistent  with  his  actual  success  in  love-making? 

XXVI.  The  Death  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley. 
Sympathetic  humor  like  Addison's  is  not  far  removed  from 
pathos ;  indeed  the  two  often  blend.  What  in  this  essay  is 
both  humorous  and  pathetic  ? 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1  The  Character  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  illustrated  from  the 
Essays. 

2.  London  Life  in  the  Time  of  Addison. 

3.  The  London  Coffee-houses. 

4.  The  De  Coverley  Papers  as  "A  Forerunner  of  the  Novel  of 
Real  Life." 


84  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

5.  Peculiarities  of  Addison's  Humor. 

6.  A  Typical  Character  of  Modern  Life. 

7.  Sir  Roger's  Love  Affairs. 

THE  SKETCH-BOOK 

living's  kinship  to  Addison  is  plain.  At  the  very  outset, 
the  likeness  between  The  Author^s  Account  of  Himself  and 
The  Spectator's  Account  of  Himself  shows  Addison  to  have 
been  Irving's  model.  The  titles  are  alike ;  the  method 
identical ;  the  style  similar.  And  this  is  not  a  unique  illus- 
tration ;  examples  abound.  The  Christmas  series  inevitably 
recalls  the  De  Coverley  set.  The  Squire,  for  instance,  is  only 
a  variation  of  Sir  Roger ;  Master  Simon,  of  Will  Wimble. 
Essays  like  The  Wife  repeat  Addison's  characteristic  method 
of  placing  a  simple  story  in  a  framework  of  moral  reflections. 
Throughout  the  essay  there  is  the  same  humorous  moralizing 
point  of  view. 

Yet  Irving  was  not  a  slavish  borrower.  He  wrote,  to  be 
sure,  the  same  kind  of  discursive  essay,  he  used  the  same 
rhetorical  methods,  he  cultivated  the  same  humorous,  moral- 
izing tone ;  but  he  had  his  own  marked  individuaHty,  he 
looked  upon  life  with  his  own  personal  likes  and  dislikes,  and 
he  developed  a  literary  charm  quite  his  own.  In  the  first 
place,  his  interests  were  different.  Addison  was  brought 
up  in  the  artificial  society  of  London,  and  his  interests  were 
largely  confined  to  city  life.  Irving  was  tjrought  up  in  a  new 
civilization,  largely  free  from  city  conventions  and  near  to 
wild  nature.  He  was  fond  of  the  country  and  wrote  with 
sympathy  on  rural  subjects.  Then,  too,  the  century  which 
had  elapsed  since  Addison's  time  had  greatly  changed  gen- 
eral intellectual  interests.  The  love  of  romance  had  revived. 
A  new  delight  in  medieval  manners  and  customs  had  de- 
veloped.    Mystery  and  superstition  had  returned  to  charm 


THE   ESSAY  85 

the  imagination.  Irving's  temperament  was  romantic ;  it 
permeated  his  work  with  a  quaintness  and  mystery  and 
superstitious  charm,  which  Addison  stu(Hously  avoided. 
Addison  was  a  keener  observer,  perhaps  a  more  judicious 
critic  than  Irving  ;  but  he  avoided  what  Irving  particularly 
cultivated,  sympathy  and  sentiment. 

Notes  and  Suggestions 

I.  The  Author's  Account  of  Himself.  Compare  in 
detail  the  sketch  of  AcUlison  at  the  Ix'ginning  of  The  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverleij  Papers.  How  do  the  two  papers  show 
the  different  interests  of  the  two  men?  Cite  passages  to 
indicate  Irving's  dreamy,  romantic  attitude.  What  pas- 
sages are  humorous?  How  so?  Write  two  or  three 
paragraphs  about  New  York  City  in  Irving's  time.  What 
is  the  double  function  of  the  first  sentence  of  paragraph  2  ? 
Some  writers  are  so  careful  of  paragraph  structure  that  a 
clear  idea  of  the  thought  may  be  had  by  reading  the  first 
and  last  sentence  of  each  paragraph.  Is  that  true  of  this 
essay  ? 

II.  The  Voyage.  Cite  passages  which  show  Irving's 
active  imagination.  In  description,  does  he  make  a  picture 
merely  or  explain  the  effect  the  scene  has  upon  him  ?  Cite 
passages.  Compare  the  captain's  simple  graphic  story 
with  the  similar  episode  more  elaborately  developed  in 
The  English  Mail  Coach  by  De  Quincey.  What  do  you 
consider  the  peculiar  excellence  of  each?  Where  does 
Irving  show  emotional  sympathy?  Where  is  contrast 
effectively  used  ? 

III.  Roscoe.  Select  a  few  adjectives  which  you  think 
best  describe  Mr.  Roscoe.  Do  you  agree  with  Irving  when 
he  says:  "I  could  not  pity  him  as  I  heard  some  rich  men  do. 
I  consider  him  above  the  reach  of  pity."     Find  an  allusion 


86  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

to  the  Bible.     Are  there  any  passages  where  the  use  of  figures 
of  speech  makes  the  idea  particularly  vivid  ? 

IV.  The  Wife.  Wherein  is  this  theme  treated  in  the 
manner  of  Addison  ?  How  does  it  differ  from  a  story  in  a 
modern  magazine  ? 

V.  Rip  Van  Winkle.  Divide  t.he  story  into  three  main 
divisions.  Are  the  facts  in  one  division  chosen  with  refer- 
ence to  the  other  divisions  ?  Does  the  introductory  division 
seem  too  long?  What  does  it  tell  us  of  Rip's  character  as 
displayed  in  his  relations  to  his  home,  to  his  farm,  and  to 
his  neighbors  ?  What  are  the  most  important  dramatic 
situations  in  the  story?  By  what  means  is  the  dramatic 
effect  of  Rip's  return  made  strong  ?  Look  up  in  the  Century 
or  Oxford  Dictionary  all  the  words  and  phrases  not  thor- 
oughly understood ;  e.g.,  "rubicund  portrait,"  "talking  list- 
lessly," "termagant  wife,"  "impending  cliffs,"  "uttering 
clouds  of  tobacco  smoke  instead  of  idle  speeches." 

Begin  a  collection  of  terse,  wise  sayings  resembling  prov- 
erbs :  e.g., 

"A  tart  temper  never  mellows  with  age,  and  a  sharp  tongue  is  the 
only  edged  tool  that  grows  keener  with  constant  use." 

Gather  information  about  Diedrich  Knickerbocker  from  the 
histories  of  American  literature,  and  write  a  character  sketch 
of  him,  imitating  the  style  of  Irving. 

VI.  English  Writers  on  America.  Make  a  topic  sen- 
tence for  each  of  the  paragraphs.  Do  these  sentences  show 
the  essay  to  have  a  careful,  progressive  plan?  Does  Irving 
practice  his  own  preaching?  Write  a  short  account  of  the 
feeling  between  England  and  the  United  States  since  Irving's 
time. 

VII.  Rural  Life  in  England.  Compare  the  attitude  of 
Irving  toward  city  and  country  life  with  that  of  Addison. 


THE   ESSAY  87 

Write  an  article  or  arrange  a  debate  on  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  country  and  city  life.  Point  out  some  of 
the  present  tendencies  in  America  to  dignify  and  elevate 
country  life.  Can  it  be  said  of  America  as  of  England, 
"The  very  laborer,  with  his  thatched  cottage  and  narrow 
slip  of  ground,  attends  to  their  embellishment"?  What 
English  poets  of  the  nineteenth  century  best  exemplify 
"the  rural  feeling  that  runs  through  British  literature"? 
Bring  to  class  some  of  the  best  examples. 

VIII.  The  Broken  Heart.  What  is  the  effect  of  the 
figurative  language  ?  Identif}^  the  quotations  (see  Bartlett's 
Familiar  Quotations) .  What  is  the  rhetorical  objection  to  the 
following  sentence:  "When  every  worldly  maxim  arrayed 
itself  against  him ;  when  blasted  in  fortune  and  disgrace 
and  danger  darkened  around  his  name,  she  loved  him  the 
more  ardently  for  his  very  suffering"  ?  Mention  other 
poems  by  Moore. 

IX.  The  Art  of  Book-Making.  Analyze  the  humor. 
To  what  extent  is  it  in  the  thought  ?  To  what  extent  in  the 
expression  ?  Explain  clearly  your  idea  of  plagiarism  and 
of  originality.     Compare  the  following  from  Lowell : 

"They  [the  poetsl  import  their  raw  material  from  any  and 
everywhere,  and  the  question  at  last  comes  down  to  this  —  whether 
an  author  have  original  force  enough  to  assimilate  all  he  has  acquired, 
or  that  be  so  overmastering  as  to  assimilate  him.  If  the  poet  turn 
out  the  stronger,  we  allow  him  to  help  himself  from  other  people  with 
wonderful  equanimity." 

Show  how  this  applies  especially  to  Shakespeare  as  a  bor- 
rower. 

X.  The  Royal  Poet.  Does  Irving  emphasize  the  strong 
passion  or  the  delicate  sentiment  of  James  ?  Try  to  explain 
why  you  like  or  dislike  this  essay. 

XL    The  Country  Church.     A  study  in  contrast.     Are 


88  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Irving's  remarks  on  "the  unpretending  great  and  the  arro- 
gant little"  sensible  and  true? 

XII.  The  Widow  and  Hek  Son.  Is  Irving's  pathos 
delicate  and  sincere  ?  Irving  never  leaves  a  story  or  scene 
to  make  its  own  effect ;  he  always  explains  the  effect  upon 
himself.     Is  this  a  fault  in  his  art  ? 

XIIT,  The  Boar's  Head  Tavern,  Eastcheap.  Read 
in  this  connection  the  tavern  scenes  in  Shakespeare's  Henry 
IV.  Explain  the  satire  on  the  Shakespearean  scholar.  Read 
the  essay  with  a  map  of  London  before  you  (see  Baedeker's 
London  and   its   Environs).     Look    up  such    references   as: 

(a)  "The  Great  Fire  of  London."     (See  Pepys's  Diary.) 

(b)  "The  Cock  Lane  Ghost."  (See  Harper's  Magazine, 
August,  1893,  and  Hare's  Walks  in  London,  Vol.  I,  pp.  204  ff.) 

(c)  "Knights  of  the  Round  Table  and  the  Long-sought 
Sangrael."  (See  Malory's  Morte  d' Arthur  and  Tennyson's 
Idylls  of  the  King.) 

XIV.  The  Mutability  of  Literature.  State  briefly  the 
theme.  Explain  the  method  used  to  make  the  subject 
interesting. 

XV.  Rural  Funerals.  An  example  of  Irving's  delicate 
and  sympathetic  appreciation.     Indicate  other  examples. 

XVI.  The  Inn  Kitchen.  Would  this  scene  be  more 
vivid  in  a  picture  ?  Is  there  anything  in  the  description 
which  could  not  be  painted  so  effectively  as  it  is  de- 
scribed ? 

XVII.  The  Specter  Bridegroom.  How  is  the  introduc- 
tory material  on  character  and  setting  matle  interesting? 
Is  the  interest  in  character  as  important  as  the  story  interest  ? 
To  what  extent  is  the  story  dramatically  developed  ? 

XVIII.  Westminster  Abbey.  Consult  the  plan  of  West- 
minster Abbey  in  Baedeker's  London  and  its  Environs.  Com- 
pare Addison's  "Westminster  Abbey"  in  Spectator,  No.  26, 


THE   ESSAY  89 

and  test  the  character  and  attainments  of  the  two  authors  by 
what  they  see  of  interest.  Do  you  notice  any  difference  in 
atmosphere  between  the  two  essays  ? 

XIX.  Christmas.  This  essay,  being  introductory  to  a 
group,  consists  of  "general  observations."  The  charm  Ues 
largely  in  the  personality  of  Irving.  His  personal  feelings 
are  always  prominent.  Make  notes  for  a  character  sketch  of 
Irving  to  be  written  later. 

XX.  The  Stage  Coach.  Make  a  short  sketch  of  some 
familiar  character  or  scene  : 

1.  The  American  Commercial  Traveler. 

2.  The  American  Country  Hotel. 

3.  When  the  Overland  Train  passes  through  a  Frontier 
Town. 

4.  When  an  Ocean  Liner  makes  Port. 

Compare  your  work  with  Irving's.  Look  up  in  the 
Oxford  Dictionary  or  the  Century  Dictionary  words  used  with 
unusual  meanings  {e.g.,  "mystery,"  "cattle"). 

XXI.  Christmas  Eve.  A  "narrative  description."  There 
is  no  connected  story  interest,  no  plot ;  only  a  series  of 
descriptions  bound  together  by  a  narrative  thread  which 
gives  unity  and  effectiveness  without  destroying  the  distinctly 
descriptive  interest.  Contrast  The  Specter  Bridegroom, 
Notice  how  the  transition  from  one  description  to  another  is 
made  and  the  point  of  view  in  each  indicated.  Look  up  the 
details  of  old  Christmas  celebrations  in  Strutt's  Sports  and 
Pastimes  of  the  People  of  England.  Explain  the  delicate  irony 
of  the  description  of  Julia's  attitude  while  the  young  officer 
is  singing. 

XXII.  Christmas  Day.  In  the  scene  from  the  chamber 
window  is  there  any  method  in  the  selection  and  ordering  of 
the  details?  (Explain.)  Is  the  essay  objectionably  discur- 
sive?    Examine  the  adjectives  and  verbs  in  the  description 


90  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

of  the  singing  of  the  choir,  especially  toward  the  end.     Are 
they  chosen  for  their  descriptive  power  ? 

XXIII.  The  Christmas  Dinner.  Contrast  with  the 
Coverley  Papers.  The  interest  in  medieval  life  and  manners, 
the  love  of  legend  and  superstition,  are  characteristic  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century.  (See  the  chapter  on  The  Romantic 
Movement  in  Part  II.) 

XXIV.  London  Antiquities  and  Little  Britain.  Con- 
sult Baedeker's  London  cuid  its  Environs  for  a  detail  map  of 
London  and  for  information  about  the  Inns  of  the  Temple 
and  Charterhouse.  The  Hall  of  the  Middle  Temple  is  pre- 
served in  practically  the  same  condition  as  it  was  when 
Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night  was  produced  there  in  Shake- 
speare's lifetime.  What  famous  literary  men  w^ere  educated 
at  Charterhouse  ? 

XXV.  Stratford-on-Avon.  Explain  the  nature  of  Irv- 
ing's  interest  in  Stratford.  Does  it  furnish  any  argument 
on  the  advantages  of  culture  ? 

XXVI.  Traits  of  Indian  Character  and  Philip  of 
PoKANOKET.  Is  this  defense  of  the  Indian  prevailingly 
intellectual  or  emotional  ?  What  passages  are  distinctly 
logical  ?  What  passages  emotional  ?  Does  the  verdict  of 
history  support  Irving's  judgment? 

XXVII.  John  Bull.  To  what  extent  is  this  a  descrip- 
tion not  so  much  of  an  Englishman  as  of  the  English  nation, 
its  form  of  government,  the  relation  of  the  established  church 
to  the  government,  the  question  of  reform,  the  foreign 
policy,  etc.  ?  Does  Irving  practice,  here,  what  he  preached  in 
English  Writers  on  America?  Is  this  essay  satirical  or  hum- 
orous ?    Make  an  outline  for  a  similar  essay  on  "  Uncle  Sam." 

XXVIII.  The  Pride  of  the  Village.  What  is  the  dif- 
ference between  sentiment  and  sentimentality?  Which  is 
illustrated  by  this  essay  ? 


THE   ESSAY  91 

XXIX.  The  Angler.  Is  there  any  excuse  for  the  ram- 
bUng  method  ? 

XXX.  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow.  What  makes 
the  short  descriptions  of  Ichabod  so  effective  ?  Is  there  any 
principle  of  selection  evident  in  the  details  of  the  picture  of 
the  Van  Tassel  farm  ?  Explain.  Write  similar  descriptions, 
avoiding  Avords  which  have  no  descriptive  value  and  keeping 
in  mind  "point  of  view"  and  "unity  of  impression." 

How  is  the  plot  interest  developed  ?  Cite  passages  which 
prepare  for  future  events.  Explain  Irving's  attitude  to- 
ward mystery  and  superstition.  Compare  the  attitude  of 
Hawthorne. 

XXXI.  L' Envoy.  What  parts  of  Irving's  work  are  the 
more  interesting,  the  narrative  or  the  descriptive  ;  the  hum- 
orous or  the  pathetic  ?     Give  reasons. 

Topics  for  Essays 

1.  A  Character  Sketch  of  Irving. 

2.  Irving's  Attitude  toward  Mystery  and  Superstition. 

3.  Diedrich  Knickerbocker. 

4.  Uncle  Sam. 

5.  The  Art  of  Fishing. 

6.  Old  Christmas  Sports  and  Pastimes. 

7.  Differences  between  Addison  and  Irving. 

8.  Sunday  in  America. 

9.  Ichabod  Crane,  A  Portrait. 
10.  Rip  Van  Winkle's  Wife. 

(b)    THE  FORMAL  ESSAY 

By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  popularity 
and  influence  of  the  discursive  essay  had  largely  passed  over 
to  essays  of  a  more  formal  kind.  Such  weekly  periodicals  as 
The  Tatler  and  The  Spectator  had  gradually  developed  into  the 
great  reviews,  of  which  the  most  influential  were  The  Edin- 


92  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

burgh,  The  Quarterly,  and  Blackwood's.  Francis  Jeffrey  and 
Christopher  North  (Professor  John  Wilson),  the  most  influ- 
ential contributors,  cultivated  more  ambitious  and  system- 
atic discussions  in  history,  biography,  and  criticism.  Ma- 
caulay's  famous  essays  on  Milton,  Addison,  Clive,  and  Warren 
Hastings  appeared  first  in  The  Edinburgh  Review.  For  this 
magazine  also  Macaulay  wrote  his  essay  on  Croker's  edi- 
tion of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  (1831),  to  which  Carlyle 
replied  a  few  months  later  (1832)  in  an  essay  on  the  same 
subject  written  for  Frazer's  Magazine.  Carlyle's  Essay  on 
Burns  also  appeared  first  in  The  Edinburgh  Review. 

Most  of  these  essays  were  ostensibly  book-reviews ;  but 
in  reality  they  were  independent  treatises ;  not  exhaustive 
perhaps,  but  systematic  and  comprehensive.  Naturally, 
they  lacked  the  personal  confidential  note  which  was  the  prin- 
cipal charm  of  Addison  and  Irving.  Their  aim  was  different. 
They  were  not  intended  to  be  read  at  the  breakfast  table  or 
to  while  away  an  idle  moment  at  night.  The  purpose  was  to 
give  reliable  information  to  active-minded  readers  on  impor- 
tant subjects  in  history,  biography,  and  literature.  The  in- 
terest lies  largely  in  the  importance  of  the  ideas  and  in  the 
clearness  and  force  with  which  they  are  expressed.  Such 
essays  furnish  us  serious  studies  in  narration  and  exposition. 

THE  LIFE  OF  JOHNSON 

Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson  belongs  to  the  same  type  of 
essay  as  his  articles  for  The  Edinburgh  Review,  though  it 
was  written,  not  for  a  magazine,  but  as  a  special  article  for 
The  Encyclopcedia  Britannica.  As  a  piece  of  biographical 
writing  it  has  a  double  interest :  first,  as  a  picture  of  John- 
son and  his  time ;  second,  as  an  example  of  Macaulay's 
literary  methods. 

It  pictures  Dr.  Johnson  as  the  most  conspicuous  literary 


THE   ESSAY  93 

figure  of  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  period  of 
transition  from  reason  to  faith,  from  satire  to  romance, 
from  downright  fact  to  the  imaginative  and  mysterious,  from 
tile  intellectual  to  the  emotional,  from  a  literature  supported 
by  patronage  to  a  literature  supported  by  a  wide  reading 
public.  Dr.  Johnson  was  the  last  of  the  old  school,  a  con- 
servative who  fought  the  new  tendencies  with  great  consis- 
tency. In  religion  he  was  orthodox,  in  politics  he  was  high 
Tory.  In  literature,  he  defended  the  doctrines  of  Pope  and 
the  classical  school.  He  came  to  London  at  a  time  the  least 
promising  for  literary  men.  Government  pensions  and  sine- 
cure offices  were  no  longer  to  be  had  for  the  asking.  Less 
reliance,  too,  was  now  to  be  placed  upon  the  patronage  of 
great  names.  On  the  other  hand,  the  reading  public  was 
not  yet  large  enough  for  an  author  to  depend  for  a  livelihood 
upon  the  sale  of  his  books.  Upon  Johnson  fell  all  the  hard- 
ships of  the  transition  ;  l)ut  he  fought  his  way  manfully  and 
became,  in  the  end,  the  literary  dictator  of  his  age.  He 
succeeded  in  checking  for  a  time  the  rising  spirit  of  romanti- 
cism, which,  after  his  death  (1784),  passed  rapidly  to  its 
climax  in  Scott,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  their  followers. 
Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson  gives  a  graphic  picture  of  the 
man  and  his  relation  to  the  times.  It  may  well  be  supple- 
mented, however,  by  the  essays  of  Macaulay  and  Carlyle 
on  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  (Macmillan's  Pocket  Series) 
and  by  selections  from  Boswell's  work  itself. 

A  separate  study  may  well  be  made  of  Macaulay's  methods 
in  structure  and  style.  The  Life  of  Johnson  illustrates  most 
of  them :  his  power  to  classify  and  group  his  ideas  into  logi- 
cal divisions  even  when  the  narrative  method  is  employed ; 
the  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  of  the  paragraphs ;  the 
clear  sentence  structure,  brilliant  in  balance  and  antithesis ; 
the  tendency  to  exaggerate  in  order  to  make  an  idea  more 


94  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

impressive ;  the  wealth  of  specific  detail,  of  historical  and 
literary  allusion,  of  apt  illustration  and  comparison.  It  is 
never  necessary  to  puzzle  over  what  Macaulay  means.  No 
student  should  leave  his  essay  without  learning  the  secret 
of  clearness  in  composition. 

Notes  on  the  Subject  Matter 

Paragraph  1.  Compare  the  books  which  Johnson  read 
at  eighteen  with  books  read  nowadays  by  boys  of  that  age. 
Would  his  method  of  reading  be  successful  with  most  young 
men? 

Paragraph  3.  In  regard  to  the  tradition  that  Johnson 
was  "a  gay  and  frolicsome  fellow,"  he  himself  said  long 
afterwards:  "Ah,  Sir,  I  was  mad  and  violent.  It  was 
bitterness  which  they  mistook  for  frolic.  I  was  miserably 
poor,  and  I  thought  to  fight  my  way  by  my  literature  and 
my  wit;  so  I  disregarded  all  power  and  authority."  Does 
poverty  and  distress  usually  make  people  servile  ? 

Paragraph  10.  This  account  of  literature  as  a  profes- 
sion in  Johnson's  time  and  the  more  extended  account  in 
Macaulay's  review  of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  should  be 
compared  with  Carlyle's  account  of  the  same  subject.  (See 
Schuyler's  edition  of  Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson  in  Mac- 
millan's  Pocket  Series,  Appendix,  pp.  126  ff.  and  157  ff.) 
Which  treatment  is  the  more  objective  and  historical  ? 
Which  the  more  analytical,  philosophical,  and  moralizing? 
As  regards  style,  which  writer  has  clearness  and  ease  ? 
Which  has  abruptness  and  strength?  Give  reasons  for  your 
answers. 

Paragraph  12.  Is  the  description  of  Johnson's  gluttony 
and  rudeness  amusing,  revolting,  or  pitiful  ?  Do  you 
excuse  him  ?     Why,  or  why  not  ? 

Paragraph   15.    This   account  of   Pope's   treatment  of 


THE   ESSAY  95 

Johiison  should  be  compared  with  what  INIacaulay  says  of 
Pope  in  the  essay  on  Addison.  There,  Macaulay  ascribes  to 
Pope   hardly   any   redeeming   qualities. 

Paragraph  10.  Compare  Schuyler's  edition  of  Macau- 
lay's  Life  of  Johnson,  pp.  130-134.  More  details  may  be 
had  from  Johnson's  Life  of  Savage.  Write  a  short  essay  on 
"Grub  Street,"  or  "The  Bohemian  Life  of  Authors  in 
Johnson's  Time." 

Paragraph  22.  Compare  Goldsmith's  sketch  of  Garrick 
in  Retaliation: 

"Here  lies  David  Garrick,  describe  him  who  can, 
An  abridgment  of  all  that  was  pleasant  in  man  ; 
As  an  actor,  confess'd  without  rival  to  shine, 
As  a  wat,  if  not  first,  in  the  very  first  Une : 
Yet,  with  talents  like  these,  and  an  excellent  heart 
The  man  had  his  failings,  a  dupe  to  his  art. 
Like  an  ill- judging  beauty,  his  colors  he  spread, 
And  beplastered  \nth  rouge  his  own  natural  red. 
On  the  stage  he  was  natural,  simple,  affecting ; 
'Twas  only  when  he  was  off  he  was  acting. 
With  no  reason  on  earth  to  go  out  of  his  way, 
He  turned  and  he  varied  full  ten  times  a  day. 
****** 

He  cast  off  his  friends,  as  a  huntsman  his  pack. 

For  he  knew  when  he  pleased  he  could  whistle  them  back. 

Of  praise  a  mere  glutton,  he  swallow'd  what  came. 

And  the  puff  of  a  dunce  he  mistook  it  for  fame ; 

Till,  his  rehsh  grown  callous  almost  to  disease. 

Who  pepper'd  the  highest  was  surest  to  please." 

Paragraph  26.  Do  you  have  more  sympathy  for  John- 
son's devotion  to  his  "silly  affected"  wife  than  Macaulay 
seems  to  have  ? 

Paragraph    27.     The    famous    passage    which    moved 


96  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Horne  Tooke  so  deeply  shows  Johnson's  style  at  its   best. 
It  is  as  follows  : 

"In  this  work,  when  it  shall  be  found  that  much  is  omitted,  let  it 
not  be  forgotten  that  much  likewise  is  performed ;  and  though  no 
book  was  ever  spared  out  of  tenderness  to  the  author,  and  the  world 
is  little  sohcitous  to  know  whence  proceeded  the  faults  of  that  which 
it  condemns ;  yet  it  may  gratify  curiosity  to  inform  it  that  the 
English  Dictionary  was  written  with  little  assistance  of  the  learned, 
and  without  any  patronage  of  the  great ;  not  in  the  soft  obscurities 
of  retirement,  or  under  the  shelter  of  academic  bowers,  but  amidst 
inconvenience  and  distraction,  in  sickness  and  in  sorrow.  It  may 
repress  the  triumph  of  malignant  criticism  to  observe,  that  if  our 
language  is  not  here  fully  displayed,  I  have  only  failed  in  an  attempt 
which  no  human  powers  have  hitherto  completed.  If  the  lexicons 
of  ancient  tongues,  now  immutably  fixed,  and  comprised  in  a  few 
volumes,  be  yet,  after  the  toil  of  successive  ages,  inadequate  and 
delusive ;  if  the  aggregated  knowledge  and  co-operating  dihgence  of 
the  Italian  academicians  did  not  secure  them  from  the  censure  of 
Beni ;  if  the  embodied  critics  of  France,  when  fifty  years  had  been 
spent  upon  their  work,  were  obliged  to  change  its  economy,  and 
give  their  second  edition  another  form,  I  may  surely  be  contented 
without  the  praise  of  perfection,  which,  if  I  obtain,  in  this  gloom 
of  soUtude,  what  could  it  avail  me  ?  I  have  protracted  my  work 
till  most  of  those  whom  I  wished  to  please  have  sunk  into  the  grave, 
and  success  and  miscarriage  are  empty  sounds ;  I  therefore  dismiss 
it  with  frigid  tranquillity,  having  little  to  fear  or  hope  from  censure 
or  from  praise." 

Paragraph  28.  Some  of  the  definitions  in  Johnson's 
Dictionary  are  highly  facetious,  e.g. : 

"Oats :  a  grain  which  in  England  is  generally  given  to  horses,  but 
in  Scotland  supports  the  people." 

"Pension:  pay  given  to  a  state  hireling  to  betray  his  country." 

Johnson  himself  afterwards  accepted  a  government 
pension. 


THE   ESSAY  97 

The  statemont  that  EngUsh  as  Johnson  wrote  it  was 
scarcely  a  Teutonic  hmguage  is  a  characteristic  exaggeration. 
In  the  preface  to  the  Didionary,  seventy-two  per  cent  of  the 
words  are  of  Teutonic  origin. 

P.A.RAGRAPH  37.  Would  Johnson  have  considered  it  as 
iinjwrtant  for  an  editor  of  Shakespeare  to  know  Fletcher,  as 
for  an  editor  of  Sophocles  to  know  ^schylus  ? 

Paragraph  38.  The  following  is  Goldsmith's  character- 
ization of  Re>Tiolds  and  Burke  : 

"Here  Reynolds  is  laid,  and,  to  tell  you  my  mind, 
He  has  not  left  a  wiser  or  l^etter  behind  ; 
His  pencil  was  striking,  resistless,  and  grand, 
His  manners  were  gentle,  compljang,  and  bland : 
Still  born  to  improve  us  in  every  part, 
His  pencil  our  faces,  his  manners  our  heart. 
To  coxcombs  averse,  yet  most  civilly  steering, 
^Vhen  they  judged  without  skill,  he  was  still  hard  of  hearing ; 
When  they  talked  of  their  Raphaels,  Correggios,  and  stuff 
He  shifted  his  trumpet,  and  only  took  snuff.  " 

"  Here  Ues  our  good  Edmund,  whose  genius  was  such, 
We  scarcely  can  praise  it  or  blame  it  too  much ; 
Who,  born  for  the  universe,  narrow'd  his  mind, 
.\nd  to  party  gave  up  what  was  meant  for  mankind. 
Though  fraught  ^^^th  all  learning,  yet  straining  his  throat, 
To  persuade  Tommy  Townscnd  to  lend  him  a  vote  : 
Who,  too  deep  for  his  hearers,  still  went  on  refining, 
And  thought  of  comdncing,  while  they  thought  of  dining. 
Though  equal  to  all  things,  for  all  things  unfit ; 
Too  nice  for  a  statesman,  too  proud  for  a  vnX  ; 
For  a  patriot,  too  cool ;  for  a  drudge  disobedient ; 
And  too  fond  of  the  right,  to  pursue  the  expedient. 
In  short,  'twas  his  fate,  unemployed  or  in  place,  sir, 
To  eat  mutton  cold,  and  cut  blocks  with  a  razor." 


98  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Paragraph  42.  Is  it  true  "that  the  place  of  books  in 
the  pubhc  estimation  is  fixed,  not  by  what  is  written  about 
them  but  by  what  is  written  in  them  "  ?  (Compare  expensive 
modern  advertising.) 

Paragraph  50.     Johnson's  prayer  is  as  follows : 

"Almighty  God,  Father  of  all  mercy,  help  me  by  thy  grace,  that 
I  may,  with  humble  and  sincere  thankfulness,  remember  the  com- 
forts and  conveniences  which  I  have  enjoyed  in  this  place ;  and 
that  I  may  resign  them  with  holy  submission,  equally  trusting  in 
thy  protection  when  thou  givest  and  when  thou  takest  away.  Have 
mercy  upon  me,  O  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  me.  To  thy  fatherly 
protection,  0  Lord,  I  commend  this  family.  Bless,  guide,  and  de- 
fend them,  that  they  may  so  pass  through  the  world,  as  finally  to 
enjoy  thy  everlasting  happiness,  for  Jesus  Christ's  sake.     Amen." 

Notes  on  Structure  and  Style 

Paragraph  L  Note  Macaulay's  method  in  explaining 
Johnson's  characteristics :  first,  the  classification  into  phys- 
ical, intellectual,  and  moral,  followed  by  three  clauses, 
specific  in  their  nature,  referring  to  the  three  divisions  in 
turn ;  secondly,  a  detailed  and  graphic  explanation  of  each 
of  the  first  two  in  order.  Which  has  the  more  space  devoted 
to  it?     Is  that  proportion  the  best?     Why? 

Paragraph  3.  Analyze  the  paragraph  structure.  Its 
subject  is  Johnson  at  Oxford.  The  topic  might  be  phrased, 
"Three  things  are  remarkable  about  Johnson  in  his  Oxford 
days:  his  poverty,  his  reckless  and  unmanageable  spirit, 
his  intellectual  ascendency."  These  three  points  are  devel- 
oped in  turn  by  specific  examples,  illustrations,  and  details. 
Look  up  the  various  methods  of  paragraph  development  in 
Scott  and  Denney's  Paragraph  Writing  or  in  some  similar 
text-book. 

Paragraph  5.     The  first  sentence  introduces  one  of  the 


THE   ESSAY  99 

large  divisions  of  the  essay,  the  period  of  poverty  and  struggle. 
The  otlier  large  division,  the  period  of  competency  and  dicta- 
torship, is  introduced  in  paragraph  34  with  the  words:  "By 
such  exertions  as  have  been  described,  Johnson  supported 
himself  till  the  year  1762.  In  that  year,  a  great  change  in 
his  circumstances  took  place."  Is  the  idea  of  poverty  and 
struggle  kept  in  mind  throughout  the  division  ? 

In  paragraph  5,  point  out  sharp  contrasts  and  antitheses. 
Where  is  the  thought  emphasized  by  the  use  of  striking 
specific  examples  ? 

Paragraph  6.  Point  out  how  the  first  sentence  is  both 
transitional  and  introductory.     Find  other  examples. 

Paragraph  7.  Entire  sentences  are  often  in  contrast; 
e.g.,  sentences  3  and  4. 

Paragraph  10.  Explain  how  the  thought  in  the  first 
half  of  the  paragraph  is  held  together  by  contrasted  sen- 
tences followed  by  a  striking  balanced  sentence. 

Paragraph  12.  Cite  further  examples  of  balance  and 
antithesis. 

Paragraph  13.  Be  on  your  guard  against  extravagant 
statements  where  truth  is  sacrificed  to  rhetoric ;  e.g., 

"Laud,  a  poor  creature  who  never  did,  said,  or  wrote  anything 
indicating  more  than  the  ordinary  capacity  of  an  old  woman,  was 
(to  Johnson)  a  prodigy  of  parts  and  learning  over  whose  tomb  Art 
and  Genius  still  continued  to  weep." 

Paragraph  22.  What  method  of  paragraph  development 
is  here  illustrated  ? 

Paragraphs  23-25.  Analyze  this  group  of  paragraphs. 
The  first  is  introductory ;  the  second  treats  the  effect  of 
The  Rambler  on  a  few  prominent  men ;  the  third  explains 
the  effect  on  the  public.  The  order  is  in  harmony  with  the 
narrative  plan  of  the  essay. 


100  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Pakagraphs  31-33.  Analyze  this  group  of  paragraphs  on 
Rasselas.  Make  a  topic  sentence  for  each  paragraph,  and 
explain  the  methods  of  development. 

Paragraph  36.  Comment  on  the  beginning  and  the  end. 
How  are  the  parts  of  the  paragraph  balanced  ?  The  incident 
of  the  Cock  Lane  Ghost  is  admirably  condensed  and  sub- 
ordinated to  the  purpose  of  the  paragraph. 

Paragraph  39.  What  characteristics  of  Macaulay  are 
here  illustrated  ? 

Paragraph  40.  Criticise  this  paragraph.  Is  it  too  long  ? 
Has  it  unity  ?  If  it  were  divided,  where  should  the  division 
be  made  ? 

Paragraph  50.  An  example  of  a  brilliant  narrative 
passage  skillfully  subordinated  to  the  purpose  of  the  para- 
graph. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Conditions  of  Authorshi})  in  Johnson's  Time. 

2.  Grub  Street. 

3.  Johnson's  Style  as  a  Writer  and  as  a  Conversationalist. 

4.  The  Origin,  Nature,  and  Membership  of  the  Literary  Club. 

5.  A  Comparison  of  Macaulay's  Estimate  of  Boswell   with 
Carlyle's  Estimate. 

6.  Macaulay's  E.xaggerations. 

7.  The  Principal  Characteristics  of  Macaulay's  Style. 

8.  Jolmson's  Peculiarities. 

9.  Joluison  and  Garrick. 
10.   Johnson  and  his  Wife. 

THE  ESSAY  ON  BURNS 

Carlyle  had  very  clear  ideas  of  what  a  biography  ought 
to  be.  His  idea  was  not  to  present  objectively  the  events 
of  a  man's  life  against  the  background  of  his  age,  nor  yet  to 
give  a  "  detached  catalogue  of  his  several  supposed  attri- 
butes,  virtues,  and  vices."     A  good    biography   penetrates 


■n 


a 
<: 

X 

S 
H 


THE   ESSAY  101 

to  the  "  inward  springs  and  relations  of  character,"  At 
the  same  time,  it  presents  not  a  mere  catalogue  of  virtues 
and  vices,  but  a  living,  acting  person.  The  virtues  and  vices 
must  be  so  related,  and  their  united  significance  so  explained, 
as  to  reveal  the  real  person  to  whom  they  belong  as  a  unique 
individual,  Uving  the  common  life,  struggling  with  his  sur- 
roundings, influenced  by  his  circumstances,  and,  in  turn, 
molding  his  circumstances  to  definite  ends.  The  main 
purpose  of  reading  (Jarlyle's  essay,  therefore,  is  to  realize 
Burns.  "Never,"  says  Phillips  Brooks,  "lay  down  a  bi- 
ography until  the  man  is  a  living,  breathing,  acting  person. 
Then  you  may  close  and  lose  and  forget  the  book ;  the  man 
is  yours  forever." 

In  the  study  of  The  Essay  on  Burns,  however,  it  is  not 
enough  to  realize  the  personality  of  Burns  only.  A  study 
should  be  made  of  Carlyle  also ;  of  his  character  and  of  the 
literary  style  which  was  the  result  of  his  character.  The 
essay  shows  Carlyle's  sincerity,  his  vigor  of  mind,  his  hatred 
of  affectation,  his  sturdy  common  sense,  his  manly  religion — ■ 
a  religion  not  of  sentiment  merely,  but  also  of  good  works. 
And  these  qualities  express  themselves  in  a  vigorous  graphic 
style ;  not  grotesque  and  eccentric  as  in  Carlyle's  later  work, 
but  often  abrupt  and  startling ;  sometimes  without  the 
graces  of  style,  but  never  without  dynamic  qualities.  His 
style,  like  his  character,  is  sincere,  robust,  direct,  manly. 

Suggestions  for  the  First  Reading 

Paragraphs  1-5.  Introduction.  Carlyle's  idea  of  what 
a  biography  ought  to  be  gives  the  key  to  his  criticism  of 
earlier  biographies  of  Burns  and  furnishes  a  test  by  which 
to  judge  Carlyle's  own  work.  Why  does  he  think  it  well  to 
have  many  biographies  of  great  men  ? 

Paragraphs  6-9.     A  general  sketch  of  Burns.     The  con- 


102  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

tention  that  the  educated  man  has  great  advantages  as  a 
poet  over  the  uneducated  man  should  be  compared  with 
Macaulay's  statement  of  the  contrary  in  his  Essmj  on  Milton  • 
(paragraphs  10-18).     Determine   whether   you    agree   with 
Macaulay  or  with  Carlyle. 

Carlyle  says,  "Criticism,  it  is  sometimes  thought,  should 
be  a  cold  business;  we  are  not  so  sure  of  this."  Explain 
your  idea  of  criticism.  Is  Carlyle  a  cold  critic  ?  Cite  pas- 
sages to  support  your  answer.  Does  Carlyle  overexalt  the 
worth  of  poets  ?  Is  it  worthier  to  be  a  poet  than  to  be  a 
"captain  of  industry"  ? 

Carlyle  is  interested  in  Burns  "not  chiefly  as  a  poet,  but 
as  a  man."  This  is  the  keynote  of  the  essay.  Read  To 
a  Mountain  Daisy,  To  a  Mouse,  and  Winter,  and  observe 
whether  the  poems  illustrate  Carlyle's  point. 

Paragraphs  10-38.  Estimate  of  Burns  as  a  poet. 
Carlyle's  method  in  this  division  is  to  give  a  general  estimate 
of  Burns's  poetry,  and  then  to  enumerate  particular  charac- 
teristics. 

(1)  Sincerity.  Be  sure  to  get  Carlyle's  full  meaning. 
What  other  poets  with  whom  you  are  familiar  are  remarkable 
for  sincerity  ?  From  this  discussion  what  do  we  learn  of 
Carlyle's  character  ? 

(2)  Poetic  feeling,  which  exalts  even  the  ccmmonplace. 
Explain  in  your  own  words  what  Carlyle  means. 

(3)  Intellectual  vigor,  expressing  itself  in  keenness  of 
vision  and  conciseness  of  language.  Study  the  examples 
until  you  see  how  they  explain  Carlyle's  point.  Explain 
the  point  of  the  comparison  of  Burns  with  Homer,  Defoe, 
and  Richardson. 

(4)  Fineness  of  intellect.  How  does  Carlyle  make  this 
point  clear  ? 

(5)  Keenness  of  feeling.     Explain  exactly  what  is  meant 


THE   ESSAY  103 

by  this.     Is  the  union  of  strong  intellect  and  strong  emotion 
a  common  or  an  uncommon  endowment?     Cite  examples. 

Whenever  a  poem  is  quoted,  read  the  entire  poem.  Ex- 
plain how  Scots  wha  hae  wi'  Wallace  hied  and  Macpherson's 
Farewell  show  "inverted  love."  Is  Carlyle's  estimate  of 
Ta7n  o'  Shanier  just?  Did  Burns  intend  to  make  it 
tragic  ?  Had  it  been  tragic,  would  it  have  ceased  to  be 
humorous  ? 

After  ascertaining  exactly  Carlyle's  idea  of  the  excellence 
of  the  songs,  read  the  songs  aloud  to  see  if  they  bear  out 
Carlyle's  opinion  of  them.  Make  a  clear  statement  of  the 
two  points  in  regard  to  Burns's  infiuence. 

Paragraphs  39-62.  Burns's  life.  The  discussion  of 
Burns's  life,  like  the  discussion  of  his  poetic  nature,  begins 
with  a  general  statement  and  proceeds  to  details.  How  far  is 
Carlyle  right  in  thinking  contentment  and  happiness  are  to 
be  found  not  so  much  in  one's  circumstances  as  in  one's 
character?  Is  the  attitude  toward  life  which  is  here  attrib- 
uted to  Burns,  peculiar  to  youth  ?  Explain  Carlyle's  idea 
of  a  "  fully  unfolded  man."  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  lines 
beginning  "Manhood  begins  when  we  have  in  any  way  made 
truce  with  necessity."  Do  you  agree  with  Carlyle  that  in 
the  final  crisis  of  Burns's  life  there  w^ere  for  him  only  the 
"three  gates  of  deliverance"  here  mentioned? 

Paragraphs  63-76.  The  weakness  of  Burns.  Wherein 
lay  the  real  cause  of  Burns's  failure  ?  Did  Carlyle's  own 
experience  help  him  in  discussing  the  struggle  of  a  high  soul 
in  the  endeavor  to  overcome  adverse  circumstances,  to  find 
the  one  thing  for  which  it  is  fitted,  and  to  pursue  that  with 
an  ardent  unity  of  purpose?  (See  Gore's  edition  of  The 
Essay  on  Burns,  Pocket  Series,  Introduction,  pp.  xix,  xx.) 

What  is  the  comparison  of  Burns  and  Byron  intended  to 
show?     Is  it  true  that  Burns  had  no  religion?     See  The 


104  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Cotter^s  Saturday  Night.     Burns  wrote  to  Mrs.  Dunlop  in 

1788: 

"Some  things  in  your  late  letters  hurt  me;  not  that  you  say 
them;  but  that  you  mistake  me.  Religion,  my  honored  madam, 
has  not  only  been  all  my  life  my  chief  dependence,  but  my  dearest 
enjoyment,  I  have,  indeed,  been  the  luckless  victim  of  wayward 
folUes ;  but,  alas  !  I  have  ever  been  '  more  fool  than  knave.'  A 
mathematician  without  religion  is  a  probable  character ;  an  irreli- 
gious poet  is  a  monster." 

Before  this  he  had  written : 

"0  thou  great  unknown  Power!  Thou  Almighty  God!  who 
hast  hghted  up  reason  in  my  breast,  and  blessed  me  with  immortal- 
ity !  I  have  frequently  wandered  from  that  order  and  regularity 
necessary  for  the  perfection  of  thy  works,  yet  thou  hast  never  left 
me  nor  forsaken  me  ! " 

This  is  certainly  religious  sentiment;  but,  to  Carlyle, 
religion  was  not  a  sentiment,  but  a  life.  Unless  religious 
feeling  found  expression  in  righteous  living,  it  was  not  reli- 
gion to  Carlyle.  How  far  was  he  right  ?  Why  are  the  Scotch, 
as  a  rule,  religious  ?  Why  have  they  produced  so  many 
theologians  ?     Name  some. 

Suggestions  for  the  Second  Reading 

Paragraphs  1-5.  Introduction.  Whao  are  the  reasons 
for  calling  this  a  model  introduction  ?  State  the  topic  of 
each  paragraph  and  test  the  paragraph  unity.  Explain  how 
the  following  analysis  applies  to  paragraph  2  :  (1)  introduc- 
tion, (2)  the  topic  stated,  (3)  the  topic  repeated,  (4)  the 
topic  explained  by  extended  comparison,  (5)  summary. 

Paragraphs  6-9.  General  estimate  of  Burns.  Paragraph 
6  states  and  explains  the  topic  of  this  group  of  paragraphs. 
What    is   that    topic?      The  theme   is  approached  from  a 


THE   ESSAY  105 

negative  .standpoint,  then  affirmatively  stated,  and  finally 
explained  and  limited  by  the  use  of  metaphor  and  ex- 
tended comparison:  Burns  was  no  "nine  days'  wonder" 
(negative  aspect),  but  a  true  British  poet  and  one  of  the 
most  considerable  men  of  the  eighteenth  century  (positive 
statement),  considering  where  and  how  he  worked  (limita- 
tion). This  natural  sequence  gives  coherence  to  the  para- 
graph. The  terse  and  picturesque  sentence  at  the  end  gives 
the  paragraph  emphasis.  Paragraphs  7,  8,  and  9  develop 
the  topic  in  detail,  giving  reasons  for  the  imperfection  and 
small  extent  of  Burns's  poetry,  pointing  out  the  tragic  cir- 
cumstances of  his  life,  and  explaining  in  detail  his  relation 
to  nature  and  to  his  fellowmen.  The  whole  group  is  bound 
together  by  the  idea  that  Burns  was  a  great  gift  of  Nature 
to  the  world,  but  that  the  world  knew  him  not  and  received 
him  not. 

Show  the  logical  development  of  paragraph  9:  topic, 
repetition,  first  aspect  with  illustrations,  second  aspect  from 
different  points  of  view,  conclusion. 

Paragraphs  10-38.  Burns  as  a  poet.  This  division 
might  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  "Although  Burns's 
poems  are  l)ut  broken  glimpses  of  his  genius,  the}'  reveal 
rare  poetic  excellencies,  sincerity,  fineness  of  intellect,  keen- 
ness of  feeling.  His  best  work  is  not  Tarn  o'  Shanter,  but 
The  Jolhj  Beggars  and  the  songs ;  especially  the  songs.  His 
influence  has  been  profound  upon  the  thoughts  and  feelings 
of  many  men.  He  helped  to  give  individuality  to  British, 
and  particularly  to  Scottish  literature."  Develop  this 
summary  into  a  detailed  outline  with  headings  and  sub- 
headings, showing  also  introduction,  discussion,  conclu- 
sion. 

Analyze  an  occasional  paragraph,  stating  the  topic  sen- 
tence,   and    explaining    the    methods    of    development  (e.g., 


106  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

paragraphs  11,  12,  15,  17,  28).  Study  also  paragraph  co- 
herence. Do  the  sentences  follow  each  other  in  a  natural 
order?  Are  they  joined  together  by  connecting  words,  or 
by  parallel  structure  ?  Does  the  sentence  begin  with  the 
words  which  are  most  closely  connected  in  thought  \\dth  the 
preceding  sentence  and  end  with  words  which  naturally 
lead  to  what  follows  ?  All  these  methods,  for  instance,  are 
illustrated  in  paragraph  11.  Show  how;  and  point  out 
further  illustrations  in  other  paragraphs. 

Paragraph  33.  Examine  the  sentences.  Are  any  of 
them  incomplete  ?  Do  any  of  them  have  clauses  coordinate 
in  thought  but  not  coordinate  in  form  ?  (Compare  Macau- 
lay's  sentences.)  What  effect  does  this  have  upon  the 
style  ?     To  what  extent  is  the  language  figurative  ? 

Paragraph  34.  Are  the  sentences  prevailingly  loose  or 
periodic  ?  What  effect  does  this  have  upon  the  style  ? 
Comment  on  the  use  of  capitals. 

Paragraph  35.  Is  sentence  3  simple,  complex,  or  com- 
pound ?  Is  it  loose  or  periodic  ?  Has  it  unity  ?  What  is  the 
subject  of  "was  not  wonderful"?  Parse  "as"  in  the  last 
clause.  Study  various  sentences  from  the  point  of  view  of 
syntax. 

Paragraph  36.  Indicate  the  connecting  words  which 
bind  the  sentences  together. 

Paragraph  37.  Carlyle  says  of  his  own  sentences  that 
they  do  not  "stand  straight  on  their  legs,"  but  "sprawl  over 
the  page."  Find  examples  in  this  and  in  other  paragraphs. 
This  characteristic  is  more  striking  in  other  works  by  Carlyle, 
e.g.,  Sartor  Resartus  and  The  French  Revolution. 

Paragraph  38.     Is  the  imagery  anywhere  startling  ? 

Paragraphs  39-62.  Burns  as  a  man.  Make  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  this  division.     Analyze  some  of  the  paragraphs. 

Paragraph  39.     Are  the  words  general  or  specific  ?     Ab- 


THE   ESSAY  107 

stract  or  concrete?  Literal  or  figurative?  What  is  the 
effect  ? 

Paragraphs  40-52.  Distinguish  between  the  style  of 
Carlyle  and  the  style  of  the  quotations,  especially  in  regard 
to  diction. 

Paragraph  53.  Point  out  examples  of  metaphor,  per- 
sonification, and  other  figures  of  speech. 

Paragraph  55.  Explain  the  Biblical  allusion.  Give 
further  evidence  that  Carlyle,  like  every  other  Scotchman, 
knew  his  Bible.     (See  paragraphs  64,  65.) 

Paragraphs  56-58.  From  what  sources  does  Carlyle 
draw  his  imagery  ?  Find  examples  of  words  coined  by  Car- 
lyle. 

Paragraph  61.  Is  the  sentence  structure  symmetrical? 
What  effect  does  the  frequent  use  of  the  exclamatory  sen- 
tence have  upon  Carlyle's  style  ? 

Paragraphs  63-76.  Final  estimate  of  Burns  and  plea. 
Summarize  Carlyle's  final  estimate.  Is  the  thought  method- 
ically developed?  How  is  the  topic  of  paragraph  64 
developed  ?  Is  there  any  digression  from  the  theme  ?  Find 
allusions  to  Shakespeare  and  the  Bible. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Carlyle's  Ideas  of  Biography. 

2.  The  Character  of  Carlyle. 

3.  The  Style  of  Carlyle  compared  with  the  Style  of  Macaulay. 

4.  Carlyle's  Estimate  of  Tarn  o'  Shanter. 

5.  The  Life  of  Carlyle. 

6.  How  to  analyze  a  Paragraph. 

7.  Burns  in  Edinburgh. 

8.  Why  Burns's  Poems  are  Popular. 

9.  Would  a  College  Education  have  made  Burns  a  Greater  Poet  ? 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

Perhaps  no  other  form  of  literature  is  more  closely  related 
to  life  than  the  public  address.  Its  subjects  are  drawn 
from  great  public  questions  which  press  upon  a  nation  for 
solution,  or  arise  out  of  occasions  which  commemorate  events 
of  deep  popular  significance.  Philosophical  discussions,  lit- 
erary and  scientific  treatises,  become  orations  only  when 
they  appeal  to  wide  interests  and  are  connected  with  the 
popular  life.  The  purpose  of  the  oration  is  not  to  explain 
truth  to  scholars  and  specialists,  not  to  please  the  cultured 
man  of  leisure ;  it  is  to  bring  truth  home  to  the  mind  and 
heart  of  the  community  and  to  make  ideas  and  ideals  pre- 
vail in  active  life.  Moreover  the  appeal  is  direct,  personal, 
intimate.  Man  speaks  directly  to  man  without  the  inter- 
vention of  the  printed  page.  The  tones  of  the  voice,  the 
flash  of  the  eye,  the  expression  of  the  face,  the  bearing  and 
the  gesture,  all  combine  to  make  the  appeal  direct  and  vital. 
The  whole  man  speaks  to  the  whole  man :  reason  prevails 
with  reason ;  feeling  arouses  feeling ;  will  stimulates  will. 
Intense  convictions,  high  moral  endowments,  clearness,  force, 
earnestness  —  these  are  the  tests.  As  Webster  himself 
phrased  it : 

"The  clear  conception,  outrunning  the  deductions  of  logic, 
the  high  purpose,  the  firm  resolve,  the  dauntless  spirit,  beaming 
from  the  eye,  informing  every  feature,  and  urging  the  whole  man  on- 
ward, right  onward  to  his  object  —  this,  this  is  eloquence." 

108 


THE    PUBLIC    ADDRESS  109 

There  are  two  principal  forms  of  public  address,  the  argu- 
mentative and  the  expository.  When  a  thesis  is  to  be  estab- 
lished, a  proposition  to  be  proved,  a  specific  course  of  action 
to  be  entered  upon  or  avoided,  the  address  is  argumentative. 
When  an  event  is  to  be  commemorated,  a  life  estimated,  the 
meaning  of  an  occasion  impressed,  the  address  becomes 
expository.  Burke's  speech  on  conciliation  with  America  is 
-argumentative ;  it  seeks  to  prove  a  proposition.  Webster's 
address  on  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  is  expository;  it  ex- 
pounds a  theme.  Both  persuade  to  action :  but  one  urges 
directly  the  reasons  for  specific  acts ;  the  other  seeks  indi- 
rectly to  arouse  patriotism  and  raise  the  ideals  of  public 

life. 

(a)    THE   ARGUMENTATIVE   ADDRESS 

In  introducing  his  discussion,  the  skillful  argumentative 
speaker  explains  what  is  necessary  of  the  origin  and  history 
of  the  controversy  and,  by  setting  aside  from  the  mass  of 
conflicting  opinion  whatever  is  admitted  or  irrelevant,  nar- 
rows the  question  to  one  or  more  special  issues.  The  dis- 
cussion proper  seeks  to  prove  or  disprove  the  special  issues 
by  the  twofold  process  of  argumentation,  stating  the  facts 
and  explaining  the  meaning  of  the  facts,  presenting  the  evi- 
dence and  drawing  the  logical  inferences  from  the  evidence. 
The  conclusion  contains  the  summary  of  the  argument,  its 
application,  and  the  final  emotional  appeal.  This  is  all 
admirably  illustrated  in  Burke's  speech  on  conciliation.  He 
points  out  what  both  sides  admit ;  i.e.,  (1)  that  conciliation  is 
a  possible  method  of  procedure,  (2)  that  the  grievances  of  the 
colonists  are  not  wholly  unfounded,  and  (3)  that  the  proposals 
for  peace  ought  to  come  from  England.  These  need  not  be 
argued.  He  further  narrows  the  issue  by  insisting  that  the 
question  is  not  of  principle  but  of  policy.  It  is  not  a  question 
of  whether  the  parliament  has  the  right  to  tax  America,  but 


no  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

of  whether  it  is  wise  to  do  so  under  existing  circumstances. 
Admitting,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  the  right  to  tax,  is  it, 
after  all,  expedient?  This,  says  Burke,  is  the  real  question 
at  issue.     The  argument  then  proceeds  in  two  main  divisions  : 

(1)  an  argument  on  the  general  expediency  of  concession,  and 

(2)  an  argument  on  particular  concessions  embodied  in  spe- 
cific resolutions.  The  address  closes  with  an  appeal  to  pa- 
triotic emotions. 

SPEECH  ON  CONCILIATION   WITH  AMERICA 

Burke  does  not  dwell  upon  the  origin  and  history  of  the 
question,  for  that  was  well-known  to  all  his  hearers.  The 
modern  reader,  however,  needs  a  preface.  The  following 
historical  summary  by  John  Fiske  explains  the  situation  in 
parliament  at  the  time  the  speech  was  delivered : 

"The  principle  that  people  must  not  be  taxed  except  by  their  rep- 
resentatives has  been  to  some  extent  recognized  in  England  for  five 
hundred  years,  and  it  was  really  the  fundamental  principle  of  English 
liberty,  but  it  was  only  very  imperfectly  that  it  had  been  put  into 
practice.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  House  of  Commons  was  very 
far  from  being  a  body  that  fairly  represented  the  people  of  Great 
Britain.  For  a  long  time  there  had  been  no  change  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  seats,  and  meanwhile  the  population  had  been  increasing  very 
differently  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Thus  cities  which  had 
grown  up  in  recent  times,  such  as  Sheffield  and  Manchester,  had  no 
representatives  in  Parliament,  while  many  little  boroughs  with  a 
handful  of  inhabitants  had  their  representatives.  Some  such 
boroughs  had  been  granted  representation  by  Henry  VIII  in  order 
to  create  a  majority  for  his  measures  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Others  were  simply  petty  towms  that  had  dwindled  away,  somewhat 
as  the  mountain  \allages  of  New  England  have  dwindled  since 
the  introduction  of  railroads.  The  famous  Old  Sarum  had  members 
in  Parliament  long  after  it  had  ceased  to  have  any  inhabitants.  Seats 
for  these  rotten  boroughs,  as  they  were  called,  were  simply  bought 


THE    PUBLIC    ADDRESS  111 

and  sold.  Political  life  in  England  was  exceedingly  corrupt ;  some 
of  the  best  statesmen  indulged  in  wholesale  bribery  as  if  it  were  the 
most  innocent  thing  in  the  world.  The  country  was  really  governed 
by  a  few  great  families,  some  of  whose  members  sat  in  the  House  of 
Lords  and  others  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Their  measures  were 
often  noble  and  patriotic  in  the  highest  degree,  but  when  bribery  and 
corruption  seemed  necessary  for  carrying  them,  such  means  were  em- 
ployed without  scruple. 

"  When  George  III  came  to  the  throne  in  1760,  the  great  families 
which  had  thus  governed  England  for  half  a  century  belonged  to  the 
party  known  as  Old  Whigs.  Under  their  rule  the  power  of  the  crown 
had  been  reduced  to  insignificance,  and  the  modern  system  of  cabinet 
government  by  a  responsible  ministry  had  begun  to  grow  up.  The 
Tory  families  during  tliis  period  had  been  very  unpopular  because 
of  their  sympathy  with  the  Stuart  pretenders,  who  had  twice  at- 
tempted to  seize  the  crown  and  given  the  country  a  brief  taste  of  civil 
war.  By  1760  the  Tories  saw  that  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  was 
hopeless,  and  so  they  were  inclined  to  transfer  their  affections  to 
the  new  king.  George  III  was  a  young  man  of  narrow  intelligence 
and  poor  education,  but  he  entertained  very  strong  opinions  as  to  the 
importance  of  his  kingly  office.  He  meant  to  make  himself  a  real 
king,  hke  the  king  of  France  or  the  king  of  Spain.  He  was  deter- 
mined to  break  down  the  power  of  the  Old  Whigs,  and  the  system  of 
cabinet  government,  and,  as  the  Old  Whigs  had  been  growing  un- 
popular, it  seemed  quite  possible,  with  the  aid  of  the  Tories,  to  ac- 
complish this.  George  was  quite  decorous  in  behavior,  and,  al- 
though subject  to  fits  of  insanity  which  became  more  troublesome  in 
his  later  years,  he  had  a  fairly  good  head  for  business.  Industrious 
as  a  beaver  and  obstinate  as  a  mule,  he  was  an  adept  in  pohtical 
trickery.  In  the  corrupt  use  of  patronage  he  showed  himself  able  to 
beat  the  Old  Whigs  at  their  own  game,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  Tories 
he  might  well  believe  himself  capable  of  reviving  for  liis  own  benefit 
the  lost  power  of  the  crown. 

"  Besides  these  two  parties  a  third  had  been  for  some  time  growing 
up,  which  was  in  some  essential  points  opposed  to  both  of  them. 
This  third  party  was  that  of  the  New  Whigs.    They  wished  to  reform 


112  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

the  representation  in  Parliament  in  such  wise  as  to  disfranchise  the 
rotten  boroughs  and  give  representatives  to  great  towns  like  Leeds 
and  Manchester.  They  held  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  principles 
of  English  liberty  that  the  inhabitants  of  such  great  towns  should  be 
obliged  to  pay  taxes  in  ])ursuance  of  laws  which  they  had  no  share 
in  making.  The  leader  of  the  New  Whigs  was  the  greatest  English- 
man of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  elder  William  Pitt,  now  about  to 
pass  into  the  House  of  Lords  as  Earl  of  Chatham.  Their  leader  next 
in  importance,  William  Petty,  Earl  of  Shelburne,  was  in  1765  a  young 
man  of  eight-and-twenty,  and  afterward  came  to  be  known  as  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  sagacious  statesmen  of  liis  time.  These  men  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  great  liberal  leaders  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
such  men  as  Russell  and  Cobden  and  Gladstone.  Their  first  decisive 
and  overwhelming  victory  was  the  passage  of  Lord  John  Russell's 
Reform  Bill  in  1832,  but  the  agitation  for  reform  was  begm\  by 
WiUiam  Pitt  in  1745,  and  his  famous  son  came  very  near  winning  the 
victory  on  that  question  in  1782. 

"  Now  this  question  of  Parliamentary  reform  was  intimately  re- 
lated to  the  question  of  taxing  the  American  colonies.  From  some 
points  of  view  they  might  be  considered  one  and  the  same  question. 
At  a  meeting  of  Presbyterian  ministers  in  Philadelphia,  it  was  perti- 
nently asked,  'Have  two  men  cho.sen  to  represent  a  poor  English 
borough  that  has  sold  its  votes  to  the  highest  bidder  any  pretence  to 
say  that  they  represent  Virginia  or  Pennsylvania  ?  And  have  four 
hundred  such  fellows  a  right  to  take  our  liberties  ? '  In  Parliament, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  well  as  at  London  dinner  tables,  and  in  news- 
papers and  jjamphlets,  it  was  repeatedly  urged  that  the  Americans 
need  not  make  so  much  fuss  about  being  taxed  without  being  repre- 
sented, for  in  that  respect  they  were  no  worse  off  than  the  people  of 
Sheffield  or  Birmingham.  To  this  James  Otis  replied :  '  Don't  talk 
to  us  any  more  about  those  towns,  for  we  are  tired  of  such  a  flimsy 
argument.  If  they  are  not  represented,  they  ought  to  be  ' ;  and  by 
the  New  Whigs  this  retort  was  greeted  with  applause. 

"  The  opinions  and  aims  of  the  three  different  parties  were  reflected 
in  the  long  debate  over  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  The  Tories 
wanted  to  have  the  act  continued  and  enforced,  and  such  was  the 


THE    PUBLIC   ADDRESS  113 

wish  of  the  king.  Roth  .sections  of  Whigs  were  in  favor  of  repeal, 
Init  for  very  cUfferont  reasons.  Pitt  and  the  New  Wliigs,  being  advo- 
cates of  Parhamentary  reform,  came  out  flatly  in  support  of  the  prin- 
ciple that  there  should  be  no  taxation  without  representation.  Ed- 
mund Burke  and  the  Old  Whigs,  being  opposed  to  Parliamentary 
reform  and  in  favor  of  keeping  things  just  as  they  were,  could  not 
adopt  such  an  argument ;  and  ac^cordingly  they  based  their  condem- 
nation of  the  Stamp  Act  upon  grounds  of  pure  expediency.  They 
argued  that  it  was  not  worth  while,  for  the  sake  of  a  little  increase  of 
revenue,  to  irritate  three  million  people  and  run  the  risk  of  getting 
drawai  into  a  situation  from  which  there  would  be  no  escape  except 
in  cither  retreating  or  fighting.  There  was  much  practical  wisdom 
in  this  Old  Whig  argument,  and  it  was  the  one  which  prevailed 
when  Parliament  repealed  the  Stamp  Act  and  expressly  stated  that 
it  did  so  only  on  grounds  of  expedienc}^ 

"  There  was  one  person,  howe^'er,  who  was  far  from  satisfied  with 
this  result,  and  that  was  George  III.  He  w^as  opposed  to  Parliamen- 
tary reform  for  much  the  same  reason  that  the  Old  Whigs  were  op- 
posed to  it,  because  he  felt  that  it  threatened  him  with  political 
ruin.  The  Old  Whigs  needed  the  rotten  boroughs  in  order  to  main- 
tain their  owti  control  over  Parliament  and  the  country.  The  king 
needed  them  because  he  felt  himself  able  to  wi'est  them  from  the 
Old  Wliigs  by  intrigue  and  corruption,  and  thus  hoped  to  build  up 
his  own  power.  He  believed,  ■nith  good  reason,  that  the  suppression 
of  the  rotten  boroughs  and  the  granting  of  fair  and  equal  representa- 
tion would  .soon  put  a  stronger  curb  upon  the  crown  than  ever.  Ac- 
cordingly, there  were  no  men  whom  he  dreaded  and  wished  to  put 
down  so  much  as  the  New  Whigs ;  and  he  felt  that  in  the  repeal  of 
the  Stamp  Act,  no  matter  on  what  ground,  they  had  come  altogether 
too  near  winning  a  victory.  He  felt  that  this  outrageous  doctrine 
that  people  must  not  be  taxed  except  by  their  representatives  needed 
to  be  sternly  rebuked,  and  thus  he  found  himself  in  the  right  sort 
of  temper  for  picking  a  fresh  quarrel  with  the  Americans. 

"  In  England  the  dignified  and  manly  course  of  the  Americans  was 
generally  greeted  with  applause  by  Whigs  of  whatever  sort,  except 
those  who  had  come  into  the  somewhat  widening  circle  of  '  the  king's 
I 


114  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

friends.'  The  Old  Whigs, —  Burke,  Fox,  Conway,  Savile,  Lord 
John  Cavendish,  and  the  Duke  of  Richmond  —  and  the  New  Whigs 
—  Chatham,  Shelburne,  Camden,  Dunning,  Barr6,  and  Beckford  — 
steadily  defended  the  Americans  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary crisis,  and  the  weight  of  the  best  intelligence  in  the  country 
was  certainly  on  their  side.  Could  they  have  acted  as  a  united  body, 
could  Burke  and  Fox  have  joined  forces  in  harmony  with  Chatham 
and  Shelburne^  they  might  have  thwarted  the  king  and  prevented 
the  rupture  with  America.  But  George  III  profited  by  the  hope- 
less division  between  these  two  Whig  parties ;  and  as  the  quarrel 
with  America  grew  fiercer,  he  succeeded  in  arraying  the  national 
pride  to  some  extent  upon  his  side  and  against  the  Whigs.  This 
made  him  feel  stronger  and  stimulated  his  zeal  against  the  Americans. 
He  felt  that  if  he  could  fir.st  crush  Whig  principles  in  America,  he 
could  then  turn  and  crush  them  in  England.  In  this  he  was  correct, 
except  that  he  miscalculated  the  strength  of  the  Americans.  It 
was  the  defeat  of  his  schemes  in  America  that  insured  their  defeat  in 
England.  It  is  quite  wrong  and  misleading,  therefore,  to  remember 
the  Revolutionary  War  as  a  struggle  between  the  British  people 
and  the  American  people.  It  was  a  struggle  between  two  hostile 
principles,  each  of  wliich  was  represented  in  both  countries.  In 
winning  the  good  fight  our  forefathers  won  a  victory  for  England  as 
well  as  for  America.  What  was  crushed  was  George  III  and  the 
kind  of  despotism  which  he  wished  to  fasten  upon  America  in  order 
that  he  might  fasten  it  upon  England.  If  the  memory  of  George  III 
deserves  to  be  execrated,  it  is  especially  because  he  succeeded  in 
gi\nng  to  his  own  selfish  struggle  for  power  the  appearance  of  a 
struggle  between  the  people  of  England  and  the  people  of  America ; 
and  in  so  doing  he  sowed  seeds  of  enmity  and  distrust  between  two 
glorious  nations  that,  for  their  own  sakes  and  for  the  welfare  of 
mankind,  ought  never  for  one  moment  be  allowed  to  forget  their 
brotherhood."  ^ 

1  Fiske,  The  War  of  Independence,  pp.  58-64,  69-70. 


THE    PUBLIC   ADDRESS  115 

Notes  on  the  Subject  Matter 

Paragraphs  1-14.  Why  does  Burke  dwell  on  his  own 
knowledge  of  the  subject  and  on  his  consistency  throughout 
the  changing  ideas  of  parliament  ?  Is  his  manner  tactful 
or  likely  to  arouse  the  prejudices  of  the  House?  To  what 
extent  is  the  origin  of  the  question  treated  ?  Point  out  what 
is  set  aside  as  extraneous  matter.  Where  is  the  special 
issue  stated  ? 

Paragraphs  15-30.  These  paragraphs  take  up  the  argu- 
ment drawn  from  conditions  in  America.  Show  the  logical  re- 
lations of  the  thought  by  filling  out  the  following  outline. 
Phrase  each  subheading  as  a  reason  for  the  heading  under 
which  it  comes. 

England  should  secure  peace  by  conciliation,  for 

I.    The  conditions  in  America  require  this  method,  for 

A 

B for 

1 

2 for 

a     

6      

c      

3 

4 

Paragraphs  15  and  16  are  devoted  to  population :  one  gives 
the  statement  of  fact ;  the  other,  the  logical  conclusions  to 
be  drawn  from  the  fact.  This  completes  the  twofold  process 
of  argument.  The  argument  in  paragraph  17  is  the  so-called 
argument  from  authority.  Under  what  conditions  is  an 
argument   from   authority   effective?     Does   Burke   realize 


116  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

this?  Why  is  the  second  sentence  of  paragraph  19  intro- 
duced? What  is  the  use  of  sentence  1,  paragraph  23? 
Why  does  Burke  devote  so  much  time  to  the  discussion  of 
commerce  ?     Why  so  httle  to  agriculture  ? 

Paragraph  32-35.  This  section  illustrates  refutation,  i.e., 
stating  and  answering  the  argument  of  the  opposition.  The 
argumentative  process  may  be  phrased  as  follows  : 

II.    The  argument  that  force  should  be  used  because  America 
is  worth  fighting  for  is  untenable,  for, 

A.  Force  is  temporary. 

B.  It  is  uncertain. 

C.  It  impairs  the  object. 

D.  We  have  no  experience  in  favor  of  force. 

Paragraphs  36-44.  The  argument  in  this  section  is 
drawn  from  the  temper  and  character  of  the  Americans. 
Outline  it  under  headings  and  subheadings,  showing  the 
logical  relations  of  the  material  by  making  each  subheading 
read  as  a  reason  for  the  heading  under  which  it  is  placed.  Is 
the  love  of  liberty  in  America  as  strong  now  as  it  was  in  Burke's 
time  ?     What  forces  are  working  against  libert}^  now  ? 

Paragraphs  45-46.     Fill  out  the  following  outline : 

IV.     Coercion  has  been  found  unwise,  for, 

A 

B 

C 

Paragraphs  47-64.  This  section  is  an  illustration  of  the 
argumentative  method  called  "logical  exclusion."  This 
method  consists  of  enumerating  all  the  possible  causes  for  a 
result  or  all  the  possible  methods  of  procedure  in  a  given  case, 
and  then  proving  them  one  by  one  to  be  impossible  or  in- 


THE    PUBLIC    ADDRESS  117 

expedient,  until  only  the  one  which  the  speaker  favors  is 
left.  Burke  mentions  the  three  possible  methods  of  proceed- 
ing against  the  colonies,  proves  two  of  them  impracticable, 
and,  therefore,  insists  that  the  third  one,  which  he  advocates, 
should  be  adopted.     Fill  out  the  following  outline  : 

V.  Of  the  three  possible  methods  of  dealing  with  America, 
removing  the  causes  of  the  love  of  freedom,  prosecuting 
it  as  criminal,  and  complying  with  it  as  necessary  — 
the  last  is  the  only  one  possible,  for, 

A.  It  is  difficult  to  remove  the  causes,  for, 

1 

a        

h        

2 

a       

h        

c        

d       

e        

/        

B.  It  is  impolitic  to  prosecute  the  spirit  as  criminal, 

for 

1 

2 

3 

4 

In  discussing  the  impossibility  of  altering  the  temper  and 
character  of  the  colonists,  why  does  Burke  give  more  time 
to  the  question  of  slavery  in  the  South  than  to  any  other  of 
the  five  considerations?     What,  in  general,  is  the  weakness 


118  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

of  argument  based  on  "logical  exclusion"?  Can  you  think 
of  any  other  possible  method  of  dealing  with  America  ? 

Paragraphs  65-67.  Up  to  this  point  in  the  speech  Burke 
has  confined  himself  to  the  first  of  the  two  leading  questions 
which  he  set  out  to  consider,  i.e.,  whether  England  ought  to 
concede.  He  now  turns  to  the  second  question,  i.e.,  What 
should  the  concession  be  ? 

Paragraphs  68  76.  What  is  the  exact  difference  between 
revenue  acts  and  trade  laws  ?  Write  out  in  your  own  words 
a  statement  of  the  inconsistency  which  Burke  finds  in  the 
argument  of  his  opponents  on  these  two  things. 

Paragraphs  77-87.  This  section  continues  the  direct 
proof  by  showing  that  concession  is  in  harmony  with  the  gen- 
ius of  the  English  constitution,  having  been  tried  with  success 
in  four  distinct  cases  after  coercion  had  failed.  A  comparison 
is  then  made  between  these  cases  and  the  condition  in  America. 
Fix  in  mind  the  six  points  of  similarity. 

Paragraphs  88-123.  If  Burke's  analogies  were  applied 
completely,  they  would  argue  the  granting  of  representation 
to  the  colonies,  but  Burke  turns  the  argument  in  favor  of  the 
other  method  of  procedure,  i.e.,  removing  the  obnoxious 
taxes.  By  both  direct  proof  and  refutation  he  shows  that 
this  is  feasible  and  that  it  will  be  effective ;  and  expresses 
his  proposals  from  time  to  time  in  formal  resolutions,  six 
stating  the  situation  and  three  repealing  the  obnoxious  laws. 
Explain  the  sequence  of  these  resolutions  and  show  how, 
taken  together,  they  present  a  progressive  logical  argument. 

Paragraphs  124-138.  This  section  is  devoted  to  refu- 
tation. There  are  five  distinct  points.  Phrase  them  in 
brief  clear  sentences. 

Paragraphs  139-141.  The  speech  closes  with  an  appeal 
to  patriotic  emotions. 


THE   PUBLIC   ADDRESS  119 

Notes  on  Structure  and  Style 

Paragraphs  1-14.  Indicate  passages  which  contain  an  un- 
usual number  of  words  derived  from  foreign  languages.  What 
effect  do  they  have  upon  the  style  ?  Is  the  style  bookish  or 
conversational  ?  Is  it  stately  and  rhythmical,  or  quick 
and  nervous  ?  Rewrite  paragraph  3,  replacing  the  words  of 
Latin  derivation  by  words  of  Saxon  origin.  Study  the  exact 
meaning  of  words  which  seem  to  be  employed  in  unusual 
senses,  e.g.,  "depending,"  "issue,"  "embarrassed"  in  para- 
graph 1;  "comprehend,"  in  paragraph  4;  "sensible"  in 
paragraph  14.  Make  a  list  of  the  twenty-five  words 
which  are  least  familiar  and  look  up  their  derivation 
and  meaning. 

Burke  is  remarkable  for  felicitous  phrases  which  stick  in 
the  memory:  "I  am  not  ambitious  of  ridicule — ^  not  abso- 
lutely a  candidate  for  disgrace."  More  striking  examples 
occur  in  paragraphs  30,  40,  and  59.  Make  a  collection  of 
such  phrases. 

Paragraphs  15-64.  Study  the  coherence  of  paragraph 
15  —  the  sequence,  the  use  of  connectives,  the  parallel 
structure,  etc. 

Sometimes  a  paragraph  begins  with  the  topic  sentence, 
and  the  details  follow.  Sometimes  the  details  come  first 
and  work  up  to  the  statement  of  the  topic  near  the  end. 
Compare,  from  this  point  of  view,  paragraphs  15  and  16. 
What  is  the  purpose  of  sentence  1,  paragraph  17? 

Contrast  paragraph  25  with  those  which  immediately 
precede.  This  appeals  to  the  emotions ;  the  others  appeal 
to  the  intellect.  Point  out  wherein  the  language  is  figurative 
and  explain  the  effect.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  personal 
reference  to  Lord  Bathurst  ? 

Paragraph    36    is    a    paragraph    of   transition,    one   sen- 


120  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

tence   looking   backward,    the   other   forward.     Find   other 
transitional  paragraphs. 

Analyze  paragraphs  37-44.  Notice  how  paragraphs  37 
and  44  bind  the  group  together.  Is  there  any  reason  for 
the  order  in  which  the  paragraphs  of  the  group  appear? 
State  the  topic  sentence  of  each  and  point  out  the  methods 
of  development.  Which  are  most  remarkable  for  unity; 
for  coherence ;  for  emphasis  ? 

In  paragraphs  52-64,  study  especially  the  sentences. 
Are  they  varied  in  length  and  form?  Cite  examples  of 
balanced  structure  and  parallel  structure.  When  ideas  are 
to  be  amplified,  the  long  sentence  is  often  useful  (see  para- 
graph 59,  sentence  3,  and  find  other  examples).  When 
ideas  are  to  be  summed  up  and  taken  away  as  permanent 
possessions  the  short  concise  sentence  is  useful,  just  as 
merchandise  may  best  be  carried  away  when  done  up  in 
small,  compact  packages  (see  paragraph  59,  sentence  5, 
and  cite  other  examples).  A  sentence  is  said  to  be  "well- 
massed"  when  the  emphatic  words  are  at  the  beginning  and 
the  end.  Find  examples  of  well-massed  sentences.  Co- 
herence demands  that  words  which  are  grammatically  con- 
nected should  not  be  separated  by  other  words  and  phrases. 
Criticize  from  this  point  of  view  paragraph  63,  sentence  1. 
Are  there  other  examples?  Is  sentence  2,  paragraph  62 
a  complete  grammatical  sentence  ?  The  chapter  on  The 
Sentence  in  Barrett  Wendell's  English  Composition  or  in  some 
similar  text  may  well  be  read  in  this  connection  and  the 
principles  applied  to  the  sentence  structure  of  Burke's 
speech. 

Sum  up  the  qualities  which  give  clearness  to  Burke's  style. 

Paragraphs  65-142.  The  remainder  of  the  address  may 
be  studied  in  the  same  manner,  or,  better  yet,  another  classic 
read  and  compared. 


THE    PUBLIC   ADDRESS  121 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Causes  of  the  Amorican  Revolution. 

2.  The  Characteristics  of  Burke's  Style. 

3.  Burke  as  a  Master  of  Details. 

4.  "Refutation"  in  Burke's  Speech  on  Concihation. 

5.  Burke's  Use  of  Summaries. 

6.  Was  Burko  disloyal  to  England  ? 

7.  The  Stamp  Act. 

(b)    THE  EXPOSITORY   ADDRESS 

The  expository  address  is  not  so  stereotyped  in  structure 
as  an  argument.  It  must  have  a  definite  theme  and  develop- 
ment ;  but  the  theme  is  not  always  so  precisely  defined  nor 
the  development  so  inevitable.  The  theme  of  Washington's 
Farewell  Address  is  the  welfare  of  the  country.  The  value  of 
national  union  is  emphasized,  the  dangers  to  the  union  pointed 
out,  its  elements  of  strength  and  security  enumerated,  lines 
of  national  conduct  proposed ;  but  the  structure  is  by  no 
means  so  systematic  as  that  of  Burke's  Speech  on  Concilia- 
tion. Webster's  theme  in  The  First  Bunker  Hill  Address 
is  America's  mission  of  liberty.  Starting  with  the  imme- 
diate occasion,  he  develops  from  it  the  value  of  independence, 
and  proceeds  to  discuss  the  influence  of  our  country  on  hu- 
man freedom  and  human  happiness.  Yet  this  famous 
address  has  been  called  "  a  series  of  eloquent  fragments." 
The  expository  address  is  not  so  closely  logical,  not  so 
rigidl}^  systematic ;  but  it  has  the  advantage  in  freedom  and 
variety. 

Certain  qualities  of  style  are  especially  important.  Clear- 
ness is  a  necessity,  for  a  hearer  cannot  pause  to  puzzle  over 
an  idea  or  to  peruse  a  sentence  a  second  time.  The  words, 
therefore,  must  be  the  language  of  life  rather  than  the 
language  of  books.     The  syntax  of  the  sentence  must    be 


122  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

unmistakable,  the  paragraph  idea  must  be  systematically 
developed,  the  transition  from  thought  to  thought  must  be 
carefully  marked.  The  thought  itself  must  not  be  too  intri- 
cate and  complex.  A  specific  and  graphic  style  is  also 
desirable.  The  common  mind  thinks  more  easily  in  the  con- 
crete and  picturesque.  Generalizations  are  impressed  most 
effectively  by  particular  examples  and  illustrations.  An 
ordinary  audience  will  not  listen  to  an  abstract  and  general 
discourse.  The  thought  must  be  connected  with  the  specific 
and  concrete  experiences  of  everyday  life. 

WASHINGTON'S   FAREWELL   ADDRESS 

In  preparation  for  the  study  of  this  address  an  historical 
review  should  be  made  of  the  formation  of  the  Union,  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution,  and  the  problems  of  Washing- 
ton's administration.  The  text-books  of  history  used  in  the 
schools  are  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

Notes  on  the  Subject  Matter 

Paragraphs  1-6.  Retirement  from  office.  State  the 
characteristics  of  a  good  introduction  and  explain  which 
are  illustrated  here.  Express  in  your  own  words  Washing- 
ton's reasons  for  retiring  at  the  end  of  his  second  term.  Do 
they  argue  against  a  third  term  for  other  presidents  ?  Ex- 
plain in  about  200  words  "the  perplexed  and  critical  posture 
of  affairs"  at  the  end  of  Washington's  first  term,  and  "the 
state  of  concerns,  external  as  well  as  internal,"  at  the  time 
of  his  retirement. 

Paragraphs  7-8.  Scope  of  the  address.  State  in  a 
brief  sentence  the  subject  of  the  address  as  here  explained. 
Characterize  Washington's  attitude  towards  his  hearers. 

Paragraphs  9-14.  The  unity  of  government.  Arrange 
in  clear  and  condensed  phrases,  and  under  headings  and 


THE   PUBLIC   ADDRESS  123 

subheadings,  Washington's  reasons  for  preserving  the  unity 
of  the  government,  thus ; 

I.   The  continuance  of  the  union  is  a  primary  object  of 
patriotic  desire,  for 

A  .    Real  independence  depends  upon  it,  for 

1 

2 

3 

etc. 

B.  Sympathies  favor  it,  for 

1 

2 

C.  Interest  demands  it,  for 

1 

2 

etc. 

Can  the  same  reasons  of  interest  be  advanced  for  closer 
relations  with  Canada?  Has  the  fear  of  the  excessive  size 
of  the  United  States  been  proved  groundless  ? 

Paragraphs  15-19.  Dangers  to  the  union.  State  briefly 
the  dangers ;  and,  from  the  subsequent  history  of  the 
country,  show  how  these  dangers  became  real  in  each  case. 
To  what  extent  had  the  country  already  suffered  from  sec- 
tionalism ?  What  have  been  the  chief  modifications  of  our 
principles  of  government  ? 

Paragraphs  20-25.  The  dangers  of  'party  spirit.  Do  we 
now  suffer  from  any  of  the  evils  of  party  spirit  pointed  out 
by  Washington  ?  Arrange  a  debate  on  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  party  spirit.  Draw  illustrations  from 
American  history.  Compare  Addison's  discussion  of  party 
spirit  in  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers. 


124  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Paragraphs  26-30.  Elements  of  strength  and  seairity. 
Can  you  give  examples  of  any  encroachment  of  one  depart- 
ment of  our  government  upon  the  others ;  for  instance, 
has  the  President  ever  used  questionable  means  to  force 
particular  legislation  upon  Congress?  Notice  the  emphasis 
upon  education,  morality,  and  religion  as  sources  of  national 
strength. 

Paragraphs  31-42.  The  treatment  of  foreign  nations. 
Explain  recent  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to 
secure  permanent  peace  and  harmony  with  other  nations. 
To  what  extent  have  we  departed  from  Washington's  ideal 
in  our  connection  with  world  politics?  Is  Washington's 
statement  that  "our  detached  and  distant  situation  invites 
and  enables  us"  to  pursue  a  policy  of  isolation  as  true  as  it 
used  to  be  ?     Give  reasons. 

Paragraphs  43-51.  Personal  references  and  parting 
words.  Would  Washington's  personal  attitude  be  appro- 
priate in  another  man  ? 

Notes  on  Structure  and  Style 

Paragraphs  1-2.  Long  periodic  sentences  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  older  style  of  public  address.  Burke,  Wash- 
ington, Edward  Everett,  Webster,  all  cultivated  this  style. 
Fashions,  however,  have  changed  ;  speakers  of  our  time  cul- 
tivate a  more  simple  conversational  manner.  Compare 
the  style  of  Lincoln.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the  periodic  style?  of  the  conversational 
style  ? 

Paragraphs  3-4.  Is  the  vocabulary  remarkable  for 
Anglo-Saxon  words  or  for  words  of  foreign  derivation? 
What  effect  does  a  preponderance  of  either  have  on  the 
style  ?  Make  a  list  of  twenty-five  or  fifty  unfamiliar  words 
in  the  speech,  and  look  up  their  derivation  and   meaning. 


THE    PUBLIC    ADDRESS  125 

Do  the  sentences  read  smoothly  or  arc  clauses  inserted 
which  break  the  natural  flow  ? 

Paragraph  6.  This  paragraph  serves  as  a  climax  to  the 
group.     Notice  its  emotional,   persuasive  character. 

Paragraph  7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  this  paragraph  in 
the  scheme  of  the  entire  address  ? 

Paragraph  9.  Examine  the  systematic  development  of  the 
paragraph :  (1)  a  brief  statement  of  the  topic,  (2)  an  enu- 
meration of  advantages,  (3)  a  full  statement  of  the  dangers 
to  be  met,  (4)  restatement  and  enforcement  of  the  theme  in 
detail.  (For  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject  of  paragraph 
development,  see  Scott  and  Denney's  Paragraph   Writing.) 

Paragraph  10.     Explain  how  this  paragraph  is  developed. 

Paragraph  11.     What  is  the  purpose  of  paragraph  11  ? 

Paragraph  12.  What  is  the  topic?  Why  not  make  a 
single  paragraph  of  paragraphs  11  and  12? 

Paragraph  13.  Sometimes  the  paragraph  topic  is  not 
stated  at  the  beginning,  but  the  details  are  given  first,  lead- 
ing up  to  the  topic  sentence,  which  is  stated  as  a  conclusion 
at  the  end.     Compare  paragraphs  10  and  13. 

Paragraph  15.  One  principle  of  style  is  that  words  which 
are  grammatically  related  should  not  be  separated  by  other 
words  and  phrases.  Find  sentences  where  this  principle  is 
not  strictly  followed.     Characterize  the  effect. 

Paragraphs  16-17.  Frame  a  terse  topic  sentence  for 
each  of  these  paragraphs  and  explain  how  each  is  developed. 

Paragraph  19.  These  sentences  are  easy  to  understand 
because  the  coordinate  clauses  are  similar  in  structure.  As 
you  read  on  in  the  address  make  notes  for  a  class  report  on 
the  sentence  structure.  Are  the  sentences  prevailingly  long 
or  short,  periodic  or  loose,  simple  or  complex  ?  In  each  case, 
what  is  the  effect  upon  the  style  ? 

Paragraph  20.     What  is  the  purpose  of  this  paragraph  ? 


126  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Paragraph  23.  Can  this  be  properly  called  a  paragraph  ? 
Give  reasons  for  uniting  it  with  paragraph  24. 

Paragraph  26.  Analyze  the  first  sentence.  Explain  the 
syntax,  especially  of  "that,"  "to  confine,"  "to  encroach." 
Is  there  anything  unusual  in  the  syntax  ? 

Paragraph  27.  Wherein  is  the  sentence  structure  of  this 
paragraph  better  adapted  to  public  address  than  the  sen- 
tence structure  of  the  preceding  paragraph  ? 

Paragraph  31.  Explain  all  the  uses  of  "it"  in  this  para- 
graph. To  what  do  "it"  and  "its"  refer  in  the  last  sen- 
tence ?  Hardly  anything  in  rhetoric  is  more  important  than 
clear  and  careful  syntax. 

Paragraph  32.  Characterize  the  vocabulary.  Are  the 
words  prevailingly  long  or  short,  native  or  foreign,  figurative 
or  literal,  abstract  or  concrete?  What  effect  does  it  all 
have  upon  style  ?     Compare  Webster's  style. 

Paragraph  37.     Supply  the  omitted  relative  in  sentence  2. 

Paragraph  42.  What  phrases  and  clauses  in  sentence  2 
are  coordinate  ?  The  entire  address  lends  itself  well  to  drill 
in  sentence  analysis. 

THE   FIRST  BUNKER   HILL  ORATION 

A  helpful  historical  introduction  to  this  oration  may  be 
found  in  Fiske's  American  Revolution,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-99,  Green's 
Short  History  of  the  English  People,  Chapter  X,  Section  11, 
or  Bancroft's  History  of  America,  Vol.  III.  A  detailed  and 
interesting  account  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  may  be  read 
in  E.  E.  Hale's  Story  of  Massachusetts  or  Frothingham's 
History  of  the  Siege  of  Boston. 

Notes  on  the  Subject  Matter 

Paragraphs  1-5.  The  deep  feeling  of  the  occasion. 
The  occasion  naturally  furnishes  the  subject  matter  for  the 


THE   PUBLIC    ADDRESS  127 

introduction.  Notice  the  emotional  character  of  the  open- 
ing. Why  is  reference  made  to  the  discovery  of  America 
and  the  settlement  of  the  country  ?  Explain  how  paragraph 
2  serves  as  a  rough  outline  of  the  oration. 

Paragraphs  6-7.  The  monument  itself.  Give  a  brief 
account  of  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument  Association  (see 
Encyclopedia).  Which  sentence  in  paragraph  7  best  sums 
up  the  purj)ose  of  the  monument  ?  Explain  how  elaborately 
Webster  works  out  the  idea.  The  abundance  of  detail  which 
he  has  always  ready  to  exemplify  and  illustrate  his  ideas  is 
remarkable. 

Paragraphs  8-11.  The  fifty  years  since  the  battle. 
Webster  called  these  paragraphs  "but  a  faint  .abstract." 
Why  did  he  not  go  into  the  details  ?  Give  more  details, 
elaborating  the  ideas  of  paragraph  9. 

Paragraphs  12-17.  Address  to  the  surinvors.  A  good 
speaker  never  forgets  his  audience,  but  always  seeks  to  keep 
his  thought  close  to  their  experience.  How  does  Webster 
bring  the  address  to  the  survivors  into  connection  with  the 
main  theme  of  his  oration  (paragraph  17)  ?  Point  out 
wherein  the  thought  is  specific  and  picturesque. 

Paragraphs  18-23.  Immediate  causes  and  residts  of 
the  battle.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill ;  of  Lexington  and  Concord.  Look  up  in  your  history 
acts  of  Parliament  "for  altering  the  government  of  the 
Province"  and  the  act  "for  shutting  up  the  port  of  Boston." 
Would  a  quotation  in  Latin  or  Greek  seem  out  of  place  in  an 
address  of  this  kind  to-day  ?  How  do  these  paragraphs 
exemplify  the  great  unifying  principle  advocated  by  Webster 
throughout  his  life  —  the  Union  of  the  government  ?  What 
sentence  sums  up  the  idea  ?  This  division  furnishes  a  good 
study  in  the  selection  of  material.  Why  not  give  an  account 
of  the  battle  ?     Why  not  explain  the  Boston   Port   Bill  ? 


128  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Why  dwell  particularly  on  the  action  of  Salem  ?  Why  speak 
of  appeals,  resolutions,  and  addresses?  If  they  are  men- 
tioned, why  not  go  into  details  ? 

Paragraphs  24-26.  Address  to  Lafayette.  Lafayette  is 
said  to  have  arisen  and  remained  standing  during  this  por- 
tion of  the  address.  Are  Webster's  remarks  in  good  taste  ? 
Explain. 

Paragraphs  27-40.  The  great  changes  in  fifty  years. 
Look  up  the  facts  of  the  revolution  of  South  America  (1810- 
1824)  and  the  struggle  of  Greece  for  independence  (1820- 
1828).  What  English  poet  died  fighting  in  the  cause  of 
Greece  ?  What  poems  of  his  treat  of  the  struggle  in  Greece  ? 
Carry  into  further  detail  the  contrast  between  the  American 
and  the  French  revolutions. 

Webster  says,  "A  chief  distinction  of  the  present  day  is  a 
community  of  opinions  and  knowledge  amongst  men  in 
different  nations,  existing  in  a  degree  hitherto  unknown." 
Compare  our  own  day  with  Webster's  in  this  respect. 

How  does  Webster  narrow  his  theme  in  this  division? 
Is  this  narrowing  appropriate  to  the  occasion  ?     Explain. 

Paragraphs  41-44.  Exidtation  in  the  influence  of  our 
country  on  human  freedoin  and  human  happiness.  Explain 
how  this  conclusion  presents  the  direct  application  of  the 
theme.  Give  reasons  to  show  that  the  country  has  become  in 
some  measure  "a  vast  and  splendid  monument,  not  of  oppres- 
sion and  terror,  but  of  Wisdom,  of  Peace,  and  of  Liberty." 
Are  there  any  limitations  to  be  put  upon  it  ?  Have  any 
changes  in  American  ideas  of  government  taken  place  since 
Webster's  time  ? 

Structure  and  Style 

Is  the  criticism  that  the  oration  is  "a.  succession  of  elo- 
quent fragments"  a  just  criticism?  Would  the  following 
arrangement  of  the  principal  headings  be  more  logical  ? 


THE    PUBLIC    ADDRESS  129 

1.  The  deep  feeling  of  the  occasion. 

2.  The  monument  itself. 

3.  Address  to  the  survivors. 

4.  Address  to  Lafayette. 

5.  Immediate  causes  and  results  of  the  battle. 

6.  The  fifty  years  since  the  battle. 

7.  The  great  changes  in  fifty  years. 

8.  Conclusion.  Influence  on  human  freedom  and  human 
happiness. 

Would  anything  be  lost  by  such  an  arrangement  ?  Why 
not  begin  with  paragraph  6? 

Read  the  chapters  on  the  sentence  and  the  paragraph  in 
Scott  and  Denny's  Paragraph  Writing  and  Wendell's  English 
Composition. 

Paragraph  1.  Read  the  second  sentence  aloud.  Does 
its  dignity  and  sweep  seem  pompous  ?  Speakers  of  our  own 
day  cultivate  a  more  simple  and  conversational  style,  espe- 
cially at  the  beginning. 

Paragraph  2.  What  effect  has  the  parallel  structure  of 
the  sentences  ?  What  is  the  function  of  this  paragraph  as 
part  of  the  introduction  ? 

Paragraph  3.  Point  out  an  illustration  of  "balance" 
in  sentence  structure. 

Paragraph  4.  Why  is  the  natural  order  inverted  in  the 
first  sentence  ?  Discuss  the  sentence  structure  throughout 
the  paragraph,  i.e.,  parallel  structure  in  the  second  sentence, 
inversion  in  the  third,  balance  in  the  fourth,  etc. 

Paragraph  6.     Explain  the  Biblical  reference. 

Paragraph  7.  What  form  of  sentence  structure  is  no- 
ticeable at  both  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  paragraph  ? 
Explain  how  the  careful  structure  of  sentences  is  an  aid  to 
clearness.  Which  is  the  topic  sentence?  Read  the  para- 
graph in  a  way  to  bring  out  the  emotional  climax. 


130  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Paragraph  8.  This  is  a  clear  example  of  a  paragraph 
with  a  topic  sentence  at  the  beginning  developed  by  partic- 
ulars and  details. 

Paragraph  11.  Explain  how  this  paragraph  makes  the 
transition  from  one  main  heading  to  another. 

Paragraph  12.  A  specific  and  picturesque  style  has  been 
much  cultivated  by  the  great  orators.  Learn  this  paragraph 
by  heart,  visualize  the  pictures,  imagine  Webster's  audience 
before  you,  and  try  to  speak  the  paragraph  with  sincere 
feeling. 

Paragraphs  13-14.  Is  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  a  mere 
rhetorical  device,  artificial  in  its  nature,  or  has  it  a  deeper 
justification? 

Paragraph  15.     What  is  the  purpose  of  this  paragraph? 

Paragraph  17.  Explain  the  transitional  nature  of  this 
paragraph  and  the  admirable  way  in  which  it  is  managed. 

Paragraph  18.  How  is  this  an  unusually  fine  example 
of  the  effective  use  of  quotations  ?  Notice  how  each  sen- 
tence seems  to  grow  out  of  the  preceding  one.  This  coher- 
ence is  due  partly  to  the  use  of  connecting  words  and  partly 
to  skillful  formation  of  the  sentences.  Illustrate.  Compare 
other  paragraphs. 

Paragraph  23.     What  is  the  function  of  this  paragraph  ? 

Paragraph  28.  Note  the  method  by  which  this  para- 
graph is  developed  :  (1)  the  topic  stated  ;  (2)  repetition  with 
a  more  specific  aspect,  a  negative  aspect,  and  a  positive  as- 
pect ;  (3)  details ;  (4)  an  emotional  aspect  impressed  by  a 
variety  of  imagery ;    (5)  a  summary  expressing  the  result. 

Analyze  other  paragraphs;  e.g.,  8,  9,  12,  21,  29.  In 
analyzing  paragraphs,  use  the  following  scheme : 

1.  The  topic  sentence. 

2.  Methods  of  development. 

3.  Unity. 


Abraham  Lincoln. 

From  the  statue  by  Augustus  Saint-Giiudens. 


THE    PUBLIC    ADDRESS  131 

4.  Coherence. 

5.  Emphasis. 

6.  Most  important  characteristics. 

Paragraph  31.  This  strikingly  figurative  passage  serves 
to  give  variety  to  the  style  and  to  pick  up  the  attention, 
which,  in  a  large  audience,  is  apt  to  relax  during  the  more 
abstract  and  thoughtful  parts  of  the  address. 

Paragraph  32.  Explain  how  admirably  the  details  are 
chosen  to  bring  out  the  contrast  with  the  French  Revolution. 

Paragraph  40.  Explain  the  Biblical  suggestion  and  note 
how  it  dignifies  the  thought  of  the  paragraph. 

Paragraph  44.  Explain  how  this  paragraph  fulfills  the 
purpose  of  a  peroration. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  Webster's  Personal  Characteristics. 

2.  Webster's  Education. 

3.  The  Story  of  the  Dartmouth  College  Case. 

4.  The  Scene  during  the  First  Bunker  Hill  Address  as  explained 
by  an  Eyewitness. 

5.  Description  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  by  a  Survivor. 

6.  The  Part  of  General  Lafayette  in  the  American  Revolution. 

7.  Origin  and  Meaning  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

8.  The  Struggle  for  Freedom  in  Greece,  1820-1828. 

9.  The  South  American  Revolution,  1810-1824. 

10.  Origin  and  Constitution  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

11.  Provisions  and  Purposes  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill. 

12.  The  American  and  French  Revolutions  compared. 

LINCOLN'S  ADDRESSES 

Lincoln,  in  some  respects,  furnishes  a  better  model  of  pubfic 
speaking  than  either  Webster  or  Burke.  He  was  as  able  as 
either  to  penetrate  at  once  to  the  heart  of  a  subject,  and  he 
was  never  satisfied  with  an  idea  until  he  had    '  bounded  it 


132  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

north  and  bounded  it  south  and  bounded  it  east  and  bounded 
it  west."  His  style  is  more  direct  and  conversational  than 
either  Webster's  or  Burke's ;  indeed  it  often  has  the  plain- 
ness and  simplicity  of  the  Bible.  He  lacked  something,  per- 
haps, of  the  graces  of  style,  but  he  was  always  vigorous  and 
persuasive.  His  figures  of  speech  were  drawn  directly  from 
common  experience ;  his  illustrations  and  comparisons  grew 
immediately  out  of  the  popular  life.  No  man  ever  appealed 
more  directly  to  the  popular  mind  and  heart.  No  man  ever 
more  sincerely  expressed  his  convictions  and  feelings.  Style 
never  came  between  him  and  his  hearers.  With  him  style 
was  not  a  contrivance  to  express  his  personality ;  it  was  a 
part  of  his  personality.  There  was  no  separating  the  style 
and  the  man,  and  it  is  the  union  of  these  two  which  makes 
oratory  commanding. 

Moreover,  the  occasions  on  which  he  spoke  and  the  sub- 
jects which  he  treatetl  were  such  as  appeal  to  the  full  powers 
of  an  orator.  True  oratory  arises,  as  Webster  says,  '^  when 
public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occasions, 
when  great  interests  are  at  stake,  and  strong  passions  ex- 
cited." Lincoln  faced  a  great  crisis  in  the  national  life.  It 
was  not  a  time  for  the  graces  of  rhetoric.  "  The  costly 
ornaments  and  studied  contrivances  of  speech,  shock  and 
disgust  men,  when  their  own  lives,  and  the  fate  of  their 
wives,  their  children,  and  their  country  hang  on  the  decision 
of  the  hour."  Then  plainness  and  simplicity  and  earnest- 
ness and  moral  power  are  recjuisite,  and  these  are  the  secrets 
of  real  eloquence. 

Notes  and  Suggestions 

Speech  at  the  Springfield  Convention,  June  17,  1858. 
This  speech  is  known  as  the  "divided  house"  speech. 
It  furnished  the  jjoint  of  departure  for  the  great  series  of 


THE    PUBLIC   ADDRESS  133 

Lincoln-Douglas  debates.  Make  an  outline  of  the  speech 
on  the  lines  laid  down  in  the  first  sentence.  Let  each  head- 
ing and  sul)heading  contain  just  one  complete  but  brief 
sentence. 

The  First  Inaugural  Address.  Paragraph  L  Com- 
pare the  introduction  with  the  introduction  of  Washington's 
Farewell  Address  and  Webster's  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration. 
Washington's  is  stately  but  stiff.  Webster's  is  more  natural 
in  style  than  Washington's,  but  contains  a  rhetorical  flourish 
in  the  words  "human  faces  from  the  impulses  of  a  common 
gratitude  turned  reverently  to  heaven  in  this  spacious 
temple  of  the  firmament."  Lincoln's  speech  is  dignified,  but 
studiously  plain,  simple,  easy. 

Paragraph  2.  This  paragraph  illustrates  Lincoln's  way 
of  brushing  aside  all  merely  incidental  matters  and  plunging 
at  once  to  the  very  heart  of  his  subject.     Explain. 

Paragraph  4.  Notice  the  pains  taken  to  enforce  and 
impress  unmistakably  the  ideas. 

Paragraph  7.  Did  the  slaveholders  believe  that  it  made 
no  material  difference  whether  the  fugitive  slave  law  was 
enforced  by  national  or  by  state  authority?     Give  reasons. 

Paragraph  8.  Was  there  any  danger  of  freemen  being 
surrendered  as  slaves?  Did  the  free  negroes  of  the  North 
have  "all  the  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the 
several  states"?  (Compare  the  details  of  the  Dred  Scott 
Decision.) 

Paragraphs  11-13.  Fill  out  the  following  outline,  mak- 
ing each  statement  read  as  a  reason  for  the  heading  under 
which  it  comes : 

1.    The  Union  of  the  states  is  perpetual  because 

A 

B 


134  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

'    C 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Paragraph  15.  Distinguish  clearly  in  meaning  between 
"insurrectionary"  and  "revolutionary." 

Paragraph  16.  The  address  as  a  whole  is  very  concil- 
iatory in  tone,  but  paragraphs  like  this  show  Lincoln's 
firmness  and  stability  —  the  iron  in  his  character.  Find 
other  traces  of  this  in  the  address. 

Paragraphs  19-20.  Describe  in  a  few  sentences  Lincoln's 
attitude  toward  the  South,  using  this  passage  and  others  to 
explain  your  meaning.  What  literary  reference  do  you 
find  in  paragraph  20  ? 

Paragraphs  21-26.  Explain  the  relation  of  these  para- 
graphs to  the  details  of  the  Dred  Scott  Case.  Had  the  Su- 
preme Court  passed  upon  any  of  these  questions  ?  What  was 
Lincoln's  attitude  towards  this  decision  ?  (See  the  Lincoln- 
Douglas  Debates.) 

Paragraph  27.  Why  mention  the  law  for  the  suppression 
of  the  foreign  slave  trade  ? 

Paragraph  28.  This  is  a  striking  example  of  simple,  clear, 
conversational  speaking.  Compare  it  carefully  with  typical 
paragraphs  from  the  speeches  of  Washington  and  Webster 
in  order  to  get  the  clear  difference  in  style.  {Bunker  Hill 
Address,  paragraphs  7,  28,  30 ;  Washington's  Farewell  Address, 
paragraphs  9,  15,  17,  19.) 

Paragraphs  33-35.  Characterize  the  concluding  para- 
graphs. Do  they  summarize  the  address  ?  What  emotional 
qualities  are  contained  in  them  ?     How  do  they  illustrate 


THE   PUBLIC   ADDRESS  135 

Lincoln's  character?  What  are  the  most  convincing  parts 
of  the  speech  ?     What  the  most  persuasive  ? 

The  Gettysburg  Address.  This  masterpiece  of  sim- 
pUcity  and  condensation  illustrates  Lincoln's  power  to  get 
at  the  heart  of  a  situation  at  once.  Here  is  a  brief  but  clear 
historical  introduction,  an  explanation  of  the  occasion,  the 
meaning  of  the  occasion  from  a  negative  and  from  a  positive 
point  of  view,  the  enforcement  and  exhortation  —  all  com- 
plete in  little  more  than  150  words.  Learn  the  address  by 
heart  and  speak  it  aloud.  In  speaking,  is  it  better  to  join 
the  sentence,  "It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  we 
should  do  this,"  with  what  precedes  or  with  what  follows? 

Notice  the  rhythmic  flow  of  the  sentences.  This  address 
should  be  compared  with  the  speech  of  Edward  Everett  on 
the  same  occasion.  On  the  day  after  the  dedication  Everett 
wrote  to  Lincoln  as  follows : 

"Permit  me  to  expre.ss  my  great  admiration  of  the  thoughts 
expressed  by  you,  with  such  eloquent  simplicity  and  appropriateness, 
at  the  consecration  of  the  cemetery.  I  should  be  glad  if  I  could 
flatter  myself  that  I  came  as  near  to  the  central  idea  of  the  occasion 
in  two  hours  as  you  did  in  two  minutes." 

Second  Inaugural  Address.  This  address  shows  well 
the  greatness  of  Lincoln's  character.  When  we  think  of  the 
trials  and  struggles  of  his  first  administration,  we  are  amazed 
at  his  freedom  from  bitterness,  his  broad  charity,  his  frank 
faith  in  God.  The  sincere  and  intimate  tone  of  the  address 
is  remarkable.  Rarely  does  a  man  thus  express  the  depths 
of  his  nature  in  public  speech. 

Find  all  the  Biblical  allusions  and  notice  what  dignity 
and  strength  they  give  to  the  style.  Point  out  effective 
uses  of  balance  and  contrast.  This  address  should  be  learned 
by  heart. 


136  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Last  Public  Address.  Outline  the  argument  of  Lincoln 
foi'  the  acceptance  of  the  new  Louisiana  government.  Let 
the  phrasing  read  as  reasons  under  the  following  heading : 
"  It  is  best  to  accept  the  new  Louisiana  government."  Phrase 
both  the  refutation  and  the  direct  argument. 

Point  out  homely  illustrations  and  figures. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Dred  Scott  Case. 

2.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  Controversy. 

3.  A  Comparison  of  the  Style  of  Webster,  Washington,  and 
Lincoln. 

4.  The  Influence  on  National  Union  of  Washington,  Webster, 
and  Lincoln. 


CHAPTER   VI 

NARRATIVE  AND  LYRIC  POETRY 

Narrative  and  lyric  poetry  differ  primarily  in  that  one 
tells  a  story,  the  other  expresses  a  personal  emotion ;  one 
is  objective,  the  other  subjective.  In  narrative  poetry 
sometimes  the  story  is  told  for  the  mere  sake  of  the  story, 
for  the  simple  interest  in  brilliant  pageantry  and  stirring 
incident.  Sometimes  it  has  a  deeper  meaning,  not  neces- 
sarily allegorical,  but  consciously  interpreting  the  meaning  of 
life.  That  is  to  saj^,  sometimes  it  is  pure  romance ;  some- 
times it  takes  on  certain  aspects  of  the  novel.  The  Lady 
of  the  Lake  is  pure  romance,  a  story  of  adventure  in  the 
Scotch  Highlands,  in  the  turbulent  times  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  interest  lies  in  stirring  narrative  and  pictur- 
esque description.  The  Idylls  of  the  King,  on  the  other  hand, 
though  founded  on  romantic  material,  treats  a  great  problem 
of  life :  it  shadows  forth  the  never  ending  struggle  between 
soul  and  sense.  It  discusses,  by  means  of  story,  the  poet's 
ideals  of  life.  Lyric  poetry  expresses  the  inner  life  of  the 
poet  more  directly  and  intimately.  It  is  the  cry  of  the  heart, 
sometimes  joyful,  but  more  often  sad.  In  lyric  poetry 
description  and  narrative  have  little  or  no  place,  because 
lyric  poetry  is  emotional  above  all  things.  A  great  variety 
of  moods  and  passions  find  expression  in  many  different 
metrical  forms.  The  emotion  embodies  itself  in  imagery  and 
in  rhythm.  The  primary  tests  of  lyric  poetry  are  the  sin- 
cerity of  the  emotion,  the  truth  and  beauty  of  the  phrasing, 
the  melody  and  harmony  of  the  verse. 

137 


138  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

THE  LADY  OF   THE  LAKE 

Scott's  poetry  was  written  earlier  than  his  prose  romances. 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  was  published  in  1810,  ten  years  before 
the  publication  of  Ivanhoe.  Like  Ivanhoe,  it  is  full  of  romance 
and  the  love  of  the  past.  Here,  however,  it  is  not  the  love 
of  medieval  England,  but  of  the  past  of  Scotland,  the  life 
which  Scott's  own  ancestors  had  lived.  The  time  of  the 
story  is  during  the  reign  of  James  V  of  Scotland,  the  father 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  An  interesting  account  of  this 
king  and  his  reign  may  be  found  in  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Grand- 
father (Chapters  XXVI-XXVIII).  James  V  was  little  over 
a  year  old  when  his  father  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Flodden 
Field  (1513).  Queen  Margaret  at  once  assumed  the  regency 
for  her  son,  and  married  Douglas,  Earl  of  Angus,  a  very 
powerful  noble.  Douglas  held  possession  of  the  person  of 
the  King,  and  ruled  Scotland  to  the  advantage  of  his  own 
house  for  many  years  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  other 
nobles  and  the  growing  disquiet  of  the  young  King,  who 
chafed  under  the  restraints  put  upon  him  by  the  Douglases. 
After  the  failure  of  many  plots  to  free  him  from  the  hands  of 
Douglas,  the  King  finally  escaped  to  Stirling  Castle,  then  in 
the  hands  of  a  governor  whom  he  could  trust,  assumed  control 
of  the  govermnent,  and  drove  Douglas  and  all  his  kinsmen 
into  exile. 

The  social  conditions  of  Scotland  were  at  this  time  very 
turbulent.  The  Highlands  of  Scotland  were  inhabited  by 
wild  tri})es  of  men  who  obeyed  no  orders  but  those  of  their 
own  chiefs  and  who  supported  themselves  by  plundering 
each  other  or  making  raids  into  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  and 
into  England ;  while  farther  up  in  the  mountains,  in  almost 
inaccessible  fastnesses,  lived  still  wilder  tribes,  who  main- 
tained themselves  in  the  same  warlike  way.  King  James 
determined  to  bring  these  tribes  under  the  control  of  the  law, 


NARRATIVE   AND    LYRIC    POETRY  139 

and  proceeded  against  them  with  the  greatest  severity.  On 
the  pretense  of  a  hunting  expedition,  he  led  a  large  force 
into  the  wild  districts,  and  summoned  the  chiefs  to  l)ring 
Iheir  best  dogs  to  take  part  in  the  event.  These  men, 
having  no  distinct  idea  of  their  offenses  and  the  consequent 
displeasure  of  the  King  —  so  long  had  the  laws  been  un- 
enforced —  came  forth  in  good  faith  to  welcome  him,  and 
were  seized  and  executed.  By  such  severe  measures  the 
Border  and  even  the  Highlands  were  outwardly  pacified, 
though  the  country  was  subject  to  occasional  uprisings. 

Such  is  the  historical  situation  which  furnished  the  setting 
of  The  Lady  of  the  Lake.  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  Highlands 
of  Perth,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Loch  Katrine,  a  beautiful 
country  with  which  Scott  was  thoroughly  familiar,  and  which 
his  poem  has  made  famous. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Canto  I.  The  metrical  form  of  the  introductory  stanzas 
is  called  the  Spenserian  stanza.  How  many  accents  are 
there  in  each  line?  How  does  the  last  line  of  each  stanza 
differ  from  the  others  ?  Explain  the  rime  scheme.  Why  is 
the  harp  made  the  symbol  of  the  old  poetry  which  the  author 
wishes  to  revive?  Read  in  this  connection,  the  beginning 
of  Scott's  Laij  of  the  Last  Minstrel. 

The  first  eight  stanzas  describe  the  hunt.  Read  them 
aloud.  Describe  the  hunt  in  your  own  words,  making  the 
account  as  vivid  as  possible.  Stanzas  9-16  fix  attention 
upon  a  hunter,  the  unknown  hero  of  the  poem.  Stanza  17 
introduces  the  unknown  heroine.  Get  in  mind  a  clear  pic- 
ture of  each.  Stanzas  17,  19,  and  21  should  be  learned  by 
heart.  Which  stanzas  point  to  the  identity  of  Ellen  and  her 
father?  The  falling  of  the  sword  (stanza  27)  was  a  super- 
stitious sign  that  the  guest  was  an  enemy  to  the  house. 


140  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Begin  to  gather  notes  for  a  report  on  the  use  of  superstition 
in  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Does  the  story  seem  real  ?  Scott  himself  tells  the  result 
of  reading  this  canto  to  a  friend  who  was  "a  passionate 
admirer  of  field  sports"  : 

"His  reception  of  my  recitation,  or  prelection,  was  rather  singular. 
He  placed  his  hand  across  his  brow,  and  listened  with  great  attention 
through  the  whole  account  of  the  stag-hunt,  till  the  dogs  threw 
themselves  into  the  lake  to  follow  their  master,  who  embarked 
with  Ellen  Douglas.  He  then  started  up  with  a  sudden  exclamation, 
struck  his  hand  on  the  table,  and  declared,  in  a  voice  of  censure 
calculated  for  the  occasion,  that  the  dogs  must  have  been  totally 
ruined  by  being  permitted  to  take  the  water  after  such  a  severe 
chase.  I  own  I  was  much  encouraged  by  the  species  of  re  very  which 
had  possessed  so  zealous  a  follower  of  the  sports  of  the  ancient 
Nimrod,  who  had  been  completely  surprised  out  of  all  doubts  of 
the  reality  of  the  tale." 

Canto  II.  The  tone  of  Canto  II  differs  much  from  that 
of  the  first  canto.  The  first  is  full  of  description  ;  the  second 
starts  the  plot.  The  picture  quality  is  strong  in  the  first; 
scenes  from  nature  aliound.  In  the  second,  the  story  ele- 
ment predominates,  giving  the  interest  of  human  life  and 
emotion.  Make  a  summary  of  the  plot  of  this  canto.  What 
makes  the  account  of  Roderick's  coming  so  vivid  ?  Briefly 
characterize  Ellen,  Malcolm  Graeme,  Roderick.  Explain 
the  historical  allusions  in  .stanzas  28  and  32. 

Analyze  the  meter,  explaining  the  rime  scheme  and  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  the  accents  in  the  line.  Define 
the  following  metrical  terms:  "hexameter,"  "pentameter," 
"tetrameter,"  "iambus,"  "trochee,"  "dactyl." 

Canto  III.  Each  canto  has  to  do  with  the  events  of  one 
day.  This,  then,  is  the  second  day  after  the  chase,  and  the 
morning  after  Roderick's  return.     Contrast  Brian  the  Hermit 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  141 

w\th  Friar  Tuck  in  Ivanhoe.     Why  is  a  supernatural  parent- 
age ascribed  to  him  ? 

Gather  material  for  an  essay  on  the  Fiery  Cross.  How  was 
it  prepared  ?  How  was  it  related  to  Brian's  curse  ?  In 
speeding  the  cross,  why  does  Scott  select  as  messenger  the 
lieir  of  the  house  at  a  funeral  and  the  bridegroom  at  a  wedding  ? 
Trace  on  a  map  the  progress  of  the  cross.  Scott  says  in  a 
note  : 

"Inspection  of  the  provincial  map  of  Perthshire,  or  any  large 
map  of  Scotland,  will  trace  the  progress  of  the  signal  through  the 
small  district  of  lakes  and  mountains,  which,  in  exercise  of  my  poeti- 
cal pri\ilege,  I  have  subjected  to  the  authority  of  my  imaginary 
chieftain,  and  which,  at  the  period  of  my  romance,  was  really 
occupied  by  a  clan  who  claimed  a  descent  from  Alpine  —  a  clan  the 
most  unfortunate  and  most  persecuted,  hut  neither  the  least  distin- 
guished, least  powerful,  nor  least  brave  of  the  tribes  of  the  Gael. 
The  first  stage  of  the  Fiery  Cross  is  to  Duncraggan,  a  place  near  Loch 
^>rmachar.  Thence  it  passes  toward  Callander,  and  then,  turning 
to  the  left  up  the  pass  of  Leny,  is  consigned  to  Norman  at  the  Chapel 
of  Saint  Bride,  which  stood  on  a  small  and  romantic  knoll  in  the 
middle  of  the  valley  called  Strath-Ire.  Tlie  alarm  is  then  supposed 
to  pass  along  the  Lake  of  Lubnaig,  and  through  the  various  glens  in 
the  district  of  Balquidder,  including  the  neighboring  tracts  of 
Glenfinlas  and  Strath-Gartney." 

Indicate  passages  where  the  narrative  is  unusually  brisk 
and  spirited.  Explain  the  contrast  in  tone  between  the 
earlier  and  later  parts  of  the  canto. 

Canto  IV.  Explain  the  plot  significance  of  stanzas  6,  7, 
9,  10,  19.  What  are  omens  ?  How  are  they  used  to  advance 
the  plot?  Is  the  ballad  of  Alice  Brand  an  appropriate  one 
to  introduce  here?  Define  the  ballad  meter.  What  traits 
of  character  in  the  warriors  does  the  vigorous  conversation 
of  stanza  30  bring  out  ?     Find  other  passages  which  treat 


142  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

the  old  duty  of  hospitality.  Why  refer  to  the  prophecy  in 
the  last  stanza?  Point  out  the  variety  of  emotions  por- 
trayed in  this  canto.  Which  are  the  most  beautiful  ?  Which 
the  most  rapid  ? 

Canto  V.  This  canto  is  perhaps  the  most  spirited  and 
picturesque  in  the  poem.  Which  are  the  most  brilliant 
narrative  passages  ?  Which  the  most  vivid  descriptions  ? 
Learn  by  heart  stanzas  12-16  and  recite  them,  trying  to 
suggest  the  combat  by  the  action.     Explain  the  lines : 

"For  thus  spake  Fate  by  prophet  bred 
Between  the  living  and  the  dead." 

The  coming  of  Douglas  to  Stirling  Castle  is  based  upon 
historic  facts  related  of  Archibald  Douglas  of  Kilspindie. 
In  Tales  of  a  Grandfather,  Scott  gives  the  following  account : 

"Archibald  Douglas  of  Klspindie,  the  Earl  of  Angus's  uncle,  had 
been  a  personal  favorite  of  the  King  before  the  disgrace  of  his  family. 
He  was  so  much  recommended  to  James  by  his  great  strength, 
manly  appearance,  and  skill  in  every  kind  of  warlike  exercise,  that 
he  was  wont  to  call  him  his  Graysteil,  after  the  name  of  the  champion 
in  a  romance  then  popular.  Archibald,  becoming  rather  an  old  man, 
and  tired  of  his  exile  in  England,  resolved  to  try  the  King's  mercy. 
He  thought  that  as  they  had  been  so  well  acquainted  formerly,  and 
as  he  had  never  offended  .James  personally,  he  might  find  favor  from 
their  old  intimacy.  He,  therefore,  threw  himself  in  the  King's  way 
one  day  as  he  returned  from  limiting  in  the  park  at  Stirling.  It  was 
several  years  since  James  had  seen  him,  but  he  knew  him  at  a  great 
distance,  by  his  firm  and  stately  step,  and  said,  'Yonder  is  my 
Graysteil,  Archibald  of  Kilspindie.'  But  when  they  met,  he  showed 
no  appearance  of  recognizing  his  old  servant.  Douglas  turned,  and 
still  hoping  to  obtain  a  glance  of  favoralile  recollection,  ran  along 
by  the  King's  side;  and  although  James  trotted  his  horse  hard 
against  the  hill,  and  Douglas  wore  a  heavy  shirt  of  mail  imder  his 
clothes,  for  fear  of  assassination,  yet  Graysteil  was  at  the  castle 


NARRATIVE   AND   IWRIC    POETRY  143 

gate  as  soon  as  the  King.  James  passed  him,  and  entered  the  castle  ; 
but  Douglas,  exhausted  with  exertion,  sat  down  at  the  gate  and 
asked  for  a  cup  of  wine.  The  hatred  of  the  King  against  th(!  name 
of  Douglas  was  so  well  known,  that  no  domestic  about  the  court 
tlared  procure  for  the  old  warrior  even  this  trifling  refreshment. 
The  King  blamed,  indeed,  his  servants  for  their  discourtesy,  and 
even  said,  that  but  for  his  oath  never  to  employ  a  Douglas,  he  would 
have  received  Archibald  of  Kilspindie  into  his  ser\nce,  as  he  had 
formerly  known  him  a  man  of  great  ability.  Yet  he  sent  his  com- 
mands to  liis  poor  Graj^steil  to  retire  to  France,  where  he  died  heart- 
broken soon  afterwards." 

Canto  W.  What  are  the  three  systematically  developed 
scenes  of  this  canto  ?  Explain  the  plan  of  the  first :  its 
setting,  its  ortlerly  development,  its  climax,  its  ending.  Is 
the  accomit  of  the  battle  in  the  Trossachs  naturally  intro- 
duced ?  Does  the  setting  increase  the  interest  of  the  Min- 
strel's narrative?  Explain.  Which  are  the  most  rapid 
passages  ?  Which  the  most  picturesque  ?  Who  is  supposed 
to  sing  the  lay  of  the  imprisoned  huntsman?  Why  is  it 
introduced  ?  When  did  you  first  guess  the  identity  of  Fitz- 
James  ?  When  Scott  read  the  poem  as  a  test  to  his  farmer 
friend,  the  farmer  detected  the  identity  in  the  first  canto, 
where  Fitz-James  winds  his  bugle  to  summon  his  attendants. 
Scott  saj's  that  he  then  went  through  the  poem  and  took 
great  pains  to  efface  any  marks  by  which  he  thought  the 
secret  could  be  detected  before  the  conclusion.  Explain  the 
devices  by  which  all  the  principal  characters  are  brought 
naturally  into  the  last  canto. 

The  King  delighted  in  going  about  in  disguise ;  and  many 
stories  grew  up  in  consequence.  In  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
Scott  tells  the  following  : 

"  King  James,  being  alone  and  in  disguise,  fell  into  a  quarrel 
with  some  gypsies  or  other  vagrants,  and  was  assaulted  by  four  or 


144  STUDIES  #iV    LITERATURE 

five  of  them.     This  chanced  to  be  very  near  the  bridge  of  Cramond ; 
so  the  King  got  on  the  bridge,  which,  as  it  was  liigh  and  narrow, 
enabled  him  to  defend  himself  with  his  sword  against  the  number 
of  persons  by  whom  he  was  attacked.     There  was  a  poor  man 
thrashing  corn  in  a  barn  near  by,  who  came  out  on  hearing  the 
noise  of  the  scuffle,  and  seeing  one  man  defending  himself  against 
numbers,  gallantly  took  the  King's  part  \\'ith  his  flail,  to  such  good 
purpose,  that  the  gypsies  were  obUged  to  fly.     The  husbandman 
then  took  the  King  into  the  barn,  brought  him  a  towel  and  water  to 
wash  the  blood  from  his  face  and  hands,  and  finally  walked  with 
him  a  little  way  towards  Edinburgh,  in  case  he  should  be  again 
attacked.     On  the  way,  the  King  asked  his  companion  what  and 
who  he  was.     The  laborer  answered,   that  his  name  was  John 
Howieson,  and  that  he  was  a  bondsman  on  the  farm  of  Braehead, 
near  Cramond,  which  belonged  to  the  King  of  Scotland.     James 
then  asked  the  poor  man,  if  there  was  any  wish  in  the  world  which 
he  would  particularly  desire  should  be  gratified  ;  the  honest  John  con- 
fessed he  should  think  liimself  the  happiest  man  in  Scotland  were 
he  but  proprietor  of  the  farm  on  wliich  he  wrought  as  a  laborer.     He 
then  asked  the  King,  in  turn,  who  he  was ;    and  James  repUed,  as 
usual,  that  he  was  the  Goodman  of  Ballengiech,  a  poor  man  who  had 
a  small  appointment  about  the  palace ;   but  he  added,  that  if  Jolm 
Howieson  would  come  to  see  him  on  the  next  Smiday,  he  would 
endeavor  to  repay  his  manful  assistance,  and,  at  least,  give  him  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  royal  apartments. 

"John  put  on  his  best  clothes,  as  you  may  suppose,  and  appearing 
at  a  postern  gate  of  the  palace,  enquired  for  the  Goodman  of  BaUen- 
giech.  The  King  had  given  orders  that  he  should  be  admitted; 
and  John  found  his  friend,  the  goodman,  in  the  same  disguise 
which  he  had  formeriy  worn.  The  King,  stiU  preserving  the  charac- 
ter of  an  iixferior  officer  of  the  household,  conducted  John  Howieson 
from  one  apartment  of  the  palace  to  another,  and  was  amused  with 
his  wonder  and  his  remarks.  At  length,  James  asked  his  visitor 
if  he  would  like  to  see  the  King ;  to  which  John  replied,  nothing 
would  delight  him  so  much,  if  he  could  do  so  without  giving  offence. 
The  Goodman  of  Ballengiech,  of  course,  undertook  that  the  King 


Sir  Galahad. 
After  till'  iiaiiitiiig  li.\-  (IcorKc  Frederic  Wutts. 


NARRATIVE    AND    LYRIC    POETRY  145 

would  not  be  angry.  'But,'  said  John,  'how  am  T  lo  know  his 
Grace  from  the  nobles  who  will  be  all  about  him?'  'Easily,' 
replied  his  companion  ;  'all  the  others  will  be  uncovered  —  the  King 
alone  will  wear  liis  hat  or  bonnet.' 

"So  speaking.  King  James  introduced  the  countrj-man  into  a 
great  hall,  which  was  filled  by  the  nobility  and  officers  of  the  crown. 
John  was  a  little  frightened,  and  drew  close  to  his  attendant ;  but 
was  still  unable  to  distinguish  the  King.  'I  told  you  that  you 
should  know  him  by  his  wearing  his  hat,'  said  the  conductor. 
'Then,'  said  John,  after  he  had  again  looked  round  the  room,  'it 
must  be  either  you  or  me,  for  all  but  us  two  are  bareheaded.' 

"  The  King  laughed  at  John's  fancy ;  and  that  the  good  yeoman 
might  have  occasion  for  mirth  also,  he  made  him  a  present  of  the 
farm  of  Braehead,  which  he  had  \\ashed  so  much  to  possess,  on 
condition  that  John  Howieson,  or  his  successors,  should  be  ready 
to  present  the  ewer  and  basin  for  the  King  to  wash  his  hands, 
when  his  Majesty  should  come  to  Holyrood  palace,  or  should 
pass  the  bridge  of  Cramond.  Accordingly,  in  the  j^ear  1822,  when 
George  IV  came  to  Scotland,  the  descendant  of  John  Howieson  of 
Braehead,  who  still  possesses  the  estate  which  was  given  to  his  an- 
cestor, appeared  at  a  solemn  festival,  and  offered  his  Majesty  water 
from  a  silver  ewer,  that  he  might  perform  the  ser\dce  by  which  he 
held  his  lands." 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Story  of  Blanche. 

2.  The  Character  of  Roderick  Dhu. 

3.  The  P'iery  Cross. 

4.  The  Druids. 

5.  The  Use  of  Superstition  in  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

6.  The  Story  of  EUen. 

7.  The  Medieval  Minstrel. 

THE  IDYLLS  OF   THE   KING 

Perhaps  no  other  stories  have  played  so  important  a  part 
in  the  history  of  English  literature  as  the  stories  of  King 

L 


146  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Arthur  and  his  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  They  have 
their  origin  in  the  unsettled  times  immediately  following  the 
conquest  of  Britain  by  the  Saxons  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  they  have  been  retold  in  almost  every  generation 
since.  In  that  early  period  the  Britons  were  carrying  on  a 
fierce  struggle  for  existence.  The  Saxons  were  making  con- 
stant inroads  upon  them  from  the  sea ;  the  savage  Picts  and 
Scots  were  pouring  down  upon  them  from  the  north ;  and 
Rome  had  not  yet  relinquished  all  cla,im  of  sovereignty  over 
them.  Arthur,  it  is  alleged,  was  a  prince  of  the  Britons. 
Whether  he  really  existed  or  not  as  an  historical  person,  we 
cannot  tell,  and  it  does  not  much  matter.  Certainly  no  man 
ever  performed  the  deeds  attributed  to  Arthur  in  the  stories. 
The  name  of  Arthur,  however,  acting  like  a  magnet,  attracted 
to  itself  all  the  stories  of  heroism  in  battle  with  man  and 
beast,  both  real  and  supernatural,  which  the  imagination  of 
the  people  could  invent,  and  it  came  to  represent  the  national 
ideal  of  knighthood  and  kingship.  The  early  histories  of  the 
time  ("  chronicles  ")  have  little  to  say  about  him;  he  was  a 
traditional  hero ;  the  stories  about  him  passed  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  by  word  of  mouth,  much  as  the  old  ballads 
did.  The  first  extant  writing  which  contains  the  Arthurian 
material  at  any  length  is  GeofTrey  of  Monmouth's  Latin 
History  of  Britain,  belonging  to  the  second  quarter  of  the 
twelfth  century  (1132-1135).  This  was  soon  translated 
into  Norman  French  by  Robert  Wace,  who  mentions  the 
Round  Table  and  adds  much  traditional  material  not  found 
in  Geoffrey's  book.  This  in  turn  was  written  out  in  English 
by  Layamon,  and  very  much  enlarged  with  still  other  tra- 
ditional material.  So  the  process  of  growth  went  on  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  stories  spread  from  land  to 
land,  finding  a  place  in  the  literature  of  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  even  Sicily.     Most  of  these  romances  are  in  the 


NARRATIVE    AND   LYRIC    POETRY  147 

Old  French  language.  To  the  modern  reader  they  seem  well- 
nigh  endless,  and  soon  become  tiresome.  Only  a  few  scholars 
have  read  them  all.  But  in  1469,  almost  exactly  a  century 
before  the  birth  of  Shakespeare,  they  were  sifted  by  an  Eng- 
lishman, Sir  Thomas  Malory ;  and  what  was  best  in  them 
was  brought  together  and  published  in  charming  English 
prose  under  the  title  Morte  d' Arthur,  in  a  book  which  has 
been  the  storehouse  of  information  for  most  writers  upon  the 
subject  since.  This  is  the  chief  source  of  Tennyson's  Idylls, 
and  is  the  book  to  which  the  modern  reader  should  go  for 
an  idea  of  the  stories  in  their  medieval  form. 

Tennyson's  interest  in  the  stories  was  lifelong.  "  The 
vision  of  Arthur  had  come  upon  me,"  he  said,  "  when,  little 
more  than  a  boy,  I  first  lighted  upon  Malory,"  and  his  mind 
dwelt  upon  the  vision  with  joy  for  more  than  fifty  years.  In 
1832  he  published  three  Arthur  poems  —  Sir  Galahad, 
Sir  Lancelot  and  Guinevere,  and  The  Lady  of  Shalott,  a  theme 
which  was  later  developed  into  Lancelot  and  Elaine.  In 
1842  came  Morte  d' Arthur,  which  appears  almost  without 
change  in  the  final  edition  of  the  Idylls,  as  The  Passing  of 
Arthur.  In  1859  came  Enid,  Vivien,  Elaine,  and  Guinevere; 
in  1869,  The  Coming  of  Arthur,  The  Holy  Grail,  Pelleas  and 
Ettarre,  and  The  Passing  of  Arthur;  in  1872,  The  Last  Tour- 
nament and  Gareth  and  Lynette;  and  finally,  in  1885,  Balin 
and  Balan. 

Thus  The  Idylls  of  the  King  were  fifty  years  in  the  making, 
and  Tennyson  began  with  the  end,  continued  with  the 
beginning,  and  ended  with  the  middle  of  the  cycle.  Dr. 
Van  Dyke  sums  up  admirably  this  most  unique  achievement : 

"That  a  great  poet  should  be  engaged  with  his  largest  theme 
for  more  than  half  a  century ;  that  he  should  touch  it  first  with  a 
Ijnic ;  then  witli  an  epical  fragment  and  three  more  lyrics ;  then 
with   four   romantic   idylls,   followed,   ten   years    later,    by   four 


148  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

others,  and  two  years  later  by  two  others,  and  thirteen  years  later 
by  yet  another  idyll,  which  is  to  be  placed  not  before  or  after  the 
rest,  but  in  the  very  center  of  the  cj'cle ;  that  he  should  begin 
with  the  end,  and  continue  wath  the  beginning,  and  end  with  the 
middle  of  the  story,  and  produce  at  last  a  poem  which  certainly 
has  more  epical  grandeur  and  completeness  than  anything  that 
has  been  made  in  Enghsh  since  Milton  died,  is  a  thing  so  marvelous 
that  no  man  would  credit  it  save  at  the  sword's  point  of  fact.  And 
yet  this  is  an  exact  record  of  Teimyson's  deahng  with  the  Arthurian 
legend." 

At  first  Tennyson  loved  the  old  stories  for  their  own  ideal- 
istic beauty,  but  soon  he  began  to  read  into  them  a  profound 
spiritual  significance ;  and  at  last,  under  the  influence  of  his 
brooding  imagination,  they  became  transformed  into  an 
interpretative  picture  of  life,  a  poet's  vision  of  the  constant 
struggle  in  the  life  of  man  between  the  spirit  and  the  world. 
In  his  dedication  to  the  Queen,  the  poet  says : 

"Accept  this  old,  imperfect  tale. 
New-old,  and  shadowing  Sense  at  war  with  Soul, 
Ideal  manhood  ck.sed  in  real  man. 
Rather  than  that  gray  King  whose  name,  a  ghost, 
Streams  like  a  cloud,  man-shaped,  from  mountain  peak. 
And  cleaves  to  cairn  and  cromlech  still ;   or  him 
Of  Geoffrey's  book,  or  him  of  MaUeor's." 

Has  Tennyson,  then,  given  us  an  allegory?  Certainly 
not  in  the  sense  that  F  Igrim^s  Progress  is  an  allegory.  You 
cannot  translate  all  the  characters  into  virtues  and  vices,  nor 
all  the  incidents  into  typical  spiritual  situations.  Those  who 
have  studied  the  series  as  an  intellectual  puzzle  have  been  dis- 
appointed. They  have  called  it  an  allegory  imperfectly 
sustained,  something  less  than  an  allegory.  Such  criticism 
misses  the  point.  These  idylls  are  something  Jiiore  than  an 
allegory.     Teimyson  himself,  when  asked  if  the  "three  fair 


NARRATIVE   AND    LYRIC    POETRY  149 

queens  "  who  stood  in  silence  near  the  throne  of  Artliur  at 
liis  crowning,  and  who  accompanied  him  on  liis  last  voyage, 
were  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity,  said  :  "  They  mean  that,  and 
they  do  not.  They  are  three  of  the  noblest  of  women.  They 
are  also  three  Graces,  but  they  are  much  more.  I  hate  to 
be  tied  down  to  say,  '  This  means  that,'  because  the  thougiit 
within  the  image  is  much  more  than  any  one  interpretation." 

And  this  does  not  mean  that  the  idylls  are  vague  and  inad- 
equate allegory.  They  are,  in  fact,  products  not  of  the  intel- 
lectual imagination  so  much  as  of  the  emotional  imagination, 
poems  not  puzzles.  If  the  idylls  drop  into  pure  allegory  in 
places,  it  is  their  weakness,  not  their  strength.  Those  parts 
are  certainly  not  the  most  poetic.  Each  idyll  pictures  some 
phase  of  the  struggle  between  what  is  spiritual  and  what  is 
worldly,  and  all  together  they  make  a  spiritual  interpretation 
of  life ;  but  they  should  be  read,  not  to  figure  out  a  mass  of 
symbolism,  but  to  enter  sympathetically  into  the  emotional 
situations. 

The  Coming  of  Arthur.  In  The  Coming  of  Arthur,  the 
old  legends  are  adapted  to  the  setting  up  of  an  ideal  state 
of  society,  a  world  of  action  ruled  by  the  power  of  the  spirit. 
The  character  of  Artliur  is  the  central  fact.  He  is  distinctly 
a  spiritual  hero.  The  mystery  of  his  birth,  for  example,  is 
given  a  spiritual  significance.  Supernatural  agencies  attend 
his  coming  as  a  babe.  Three  spiritual  queens  are  present 
at  his  crowning,  "friends  who  will  help  him  at  his  need." 
His  sword,  Excalil^ar,  is  made  to  suggest  the  sword  of  the 
spirit,  for  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  who  presents  it,  is  pictured 
with  a  wealth  of  sacred  imagery,  suggesting  the  church:  "A 
mist  of  incense  curled  about  her,"  and  her  face  was  "hidden 
in  the  minster  gloom, "  and 

"There  was  heard  among  the  holy  hymns 
A  voice  as  of  the  waters,  for  she  dwells 


150  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Down  in  a  deep  —  calm,  whatsoever  storms 

May  shake  the  world  —  and  when  the  surface  rolls, 

Hath  poiver  to  ivalk  the  waters  like  our  Lord." 

Arthur  himself  shows  strange  spiritual  powers.  There  was 
something  in  the  simple  words  of  his  authority  that  "flushed 
and  dazed"  the  knights  who  swore  the  oath.  They  arose 
from  kneeling  "pale  as  at  the  passing  of  a  ghost." 

"And  when  he  spake,  and  cheer'd  his  Table  Round 
With  large,  divine,  and  comfortable  words, 
Beyond  my  tongue  to  tell  thee  —  I  beheld, 
From  eye  to  eye  thro'  all  their  order  flash 
A  momentary  likeness  of  the  King." 

In  the  battle  field  the  "fire  of  God"  descended  on  him,  so 
that  even  Lancelot  knew  him  for  his  King.  In  this  spiritual 
Arthur  and  his  ideal  kingdom  we  have  the  basis,  not  for  a 
mere  romantic  legend,  but  for  a  significant  picture  of  life. 

The  tone  of  the  battle  description  (lines  94  ff.)  should  be 
compared  with  the  final  battle  in  The  Passing  of  Arthur.  What 
is  the  plot  significance  of  lines  123-133  ?  Lines  316-324 
present  a  graphic  and  significant  character  contrast.  Make 
notes,  as  you  read,  of  all  the  passages  which  illustrate 
the  character  of  Gawain  and  Modred.  Write  a  character 
sketch  of  each.  Read  aloud  lines  481-501  to  show  how 
the  sound  harmonizes  with  the  sense.  Such  harmony  is 
characteristic  of  Tennyson's  poetry.  Compare  Scott's  verse 
in  this  respect. 

Gareth  and  Lynette.  This  idyll  stands  first  in  the  com- 
pleted series,  but  it  was  added  to  the  series  late  (1872),  after 
Tennyson  had  thoroughly  worked  out  his  interpretation 
of  the  legend  as  "the  struggle  between  soul  and  sense," 
the  disintegration  of  the  ideal  social  state  by  evil  forces. 
It  has,  therefore,  a  distinct  part  to  play  in  the  development 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  151 

of  the  general  theme.  It  represents  the  innocent,  strong 
Hfe  of  ideal  youth  both  in  the  individual  and  in  society.  The 
two  evil  forces,  sensuality  and  mysticism,  which  later  under- 
mine the  individual  character  and  overthrow  the  ideal  social 
state,  are  not  yet  active.  The  sin  of  Lancelot  and  Guinevere 
has  not  yet  poisoned  the  life  of  the  court.  The  quest  of  the 
Holy  Grail  has  not  yet  led  the  knights  to  follow  "the  wander- 
ing fires  "  of  a  false  mysticism.  They  live  in  a  material  world 
of  action,  guided  and  upheld  by  high  spiritual  ideals.  All 
the  men  are  brave  and  all  the  women  virtuous.  Honor  and 
justice  prevail.  No  wrong  goes  unavenged.  Men  believe 
in  courage  and  loyalty  and  high  achievement.  Gareth  is 
the  youthful  hero  who  approaches  life  with  joyful  confi- 
dence, who  maintains  his  ideals,  who  conquers  the  increasing 
difficulties  of  life,  and  who  finds,  at  last,  in  Death  itself  only 
a  blooming  boy.  The  real  center  of  interest  is  in  Gareth's 
character.  Notice  especially,  in  the  reading,  how  his  manli- 
ness and  self-control  are  proof  against  the  pride  and  ridicule 
of  Lynette. 

The  idyll  is  a  series  of  graphic  scenes.  Enumerate  these 
scenes,  give  a  name  to  each,  and  thus  make  an  outline  of  the 
idyll.  Select  a  few  adjectives  which  best  characterize  the 
introductory  scene  (lines  1-168). 

Why  does  Temiyson  represent  the  city  as  "moving  weirdly 
in  the  mist"  with  its  mystic  gateway  "built  by  fairy  kings 
and  built  to  music,  therefore  never  built  at  all  and  therefore 
built  forever"?  Explain  the  fitness  of  the  imagery  used  in 
describing  Morning-Star,  Noonday-Sun,  Evening-Star,  and 
Death.  Why,  for  instance,  is  Evening-Star  "wrap't  in 
hardened  skins  that  fit  him  like  his  owti,"  and  why  is  Death 
a  blooming  boy  ? 

What  traits  of  character  are  emphasized  in  Gareth  ?  in 
Lynette  ? 


152  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Analyze  the  meter.  Scan  a  few  lines,  indicating  the  accents 
and  showing  the  substitutions  for  the  ordinary  iambic  foot. 
In  what  feet  do  the  variations  most  commonly  occur  ? 

What  is  Tennyson's  ideal  of  Knighthood  ?  (See  lines  116- 
118;  541-544;  1135-1139;  and  Gi^mez^ere,  lines  456-580.) 

Lancelot  and  Elaine.  This  idyll  is  the  sixth  in  the  com- 
pleted series.  The  "struggle  between  soul  and  sense"  is 
now  at  its  height.  The  sin  of  Lancelot  and  Guinevere  is 
extending  its  subtle  mischief,  undermining  character  and 
threatening  the  integrity  of  the  social  state.  Ideals  are 
relaxing.  Only  some  of  the  knights  are  brave ;  only  some  of 
the  ladies  virtuous.  Especially  is  the  struggle  great  in 
Lancelot,  who  is  too  noble  a  character  to  sin  "and  be  the 
sleeker  for  it."  There  is  a  fierce  battle  between  his  love  for 
Guinevere  and  his  sworn  allegiance  to  the  King.  Indicate 
the  lines  which  describe  how  the  struggle  showed  itself  in  his 
face  and  bearing.  Indicate  the  lines  which  show  the  struggle 
at  its  climax.  What  effect  has  sin  had  upon  the  character 
of  Guinevere  ? 

Lancelot  and  Elaine  was  first  published  under  the  title 
Elaine  in  a  group  of  four  idylls  called  The  False  and  the  True. 
It  was  a  character  sketch  to  be  contrasted  with  Guinevere. 
The  two  women,  however,  are  strongly  set  off  against  each 
other  within  this  single  idyll.  Elaine  is  weak,  but  pure, 
trustful,  guileless,  unselfish.  Guinevere  is  strong,  magnifi- 
cent, jealous,  deceitful.  Indicate  the  lines  which  bring  out  the 
contrast  most  forcibly.  What  lines  show  that  Guinevere's 
character  is  degenerating?  Do  you  sympathize  at  all  with 
her  attitude  toward  Arthur  ?  What  lines  indicate  Lancelot's 
feeling  toward  the  King  ?  How  does  his  feeling  differ  from 
Guinevere's  ? 

Characterize  the  actions  of  Gawain.  What  new  light 
is  thrown  upon  his  character  ?     Why  begin  the  idyll  with  the 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC   POETRY  153 

description  of  Elaine  dreaming  over  Lancelot's  shield  rather 
than  with  the  account  of  the  diamonds  ? 

The  three  principal  plot  elements  of  the  idyll  are  :  (1)  the 
guilty  love  of  Lancelot  and  Guinevere ;  (2)  Lancelot's  devo- 
tion to  Arthur ;  (3)  Elaine's  love  for  Lancelot.  Explain 
how  they  are  woven  together  into  the  story.  Learn  by  heart 
lines  241-259.  Pick  out  lines  which  have  become  popular 
quotations;  e.g.,  "He  makes  no  friend  who  never  made  a 
foe." 

Indicate  passages  where  the  effect  of  contrast  is  striking. 
Point  out  passages  of  strength  and  rapidity.  What  makes 
these  passages  beautiful  or  strong  ?  The  situation  in  which 
Elaine  betrays  her  love  to  Lancelot  (lines  838-898)  is  hard  to 
manage,  ])ut  Tennyson  has  managed  it  with  delicate  skill. 
Learn  lines  867-872. 

The  Passing  of  Arthur.  This  idyll,  though  the  last  of 
the  series,  was  written  first ;  it  therefore  contains  little  that 
can,  in  any  sense,  be  called  allegory.  It  is,  however,  a  fitting 
close  to  the  theme  of  the  series  and  is  perhaps  the  most 
richly  poetical  of  all  the  idylls.  Its  tone  is  in  perfect  harmony 
with  the  catastrophe  of  the  Round  Table.  At  length,  the 
clash  has  come.  The  sin  of  Lancelot  and  Guinevere  has  been 
exposed.  Lancelot,  pursued  by  Arthur,  has  fled  to  the  north. 
Guinevere  has  retired  to  the  convent  at  Almesbury.  During 
Arthur's  absence,  Modred  has  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion 
at  home,  and  now  Arthur  returns  to  meet  him  in  that  last 
weird  battle  in  the  mist.  It  is  a  mournful  theme  developed 
with  a  wealth  of  gloomy  and  somber  imagery. 

However,  all  is  not  despondency  and  failure.  Tennyson  is 
no  pessimist.  There  is  a  note  of  triumph  at  the  end.  After 
all,  soul  has  the  final  victory  over  sense.  To  all  appearances, 
one  may  have  wrought  upon  the  world  in  vain ;  good  may  be 
overcome  by  evil  in  the  social  organization  ;  yet  the  individual 


154  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

soul  may  triumph.  The  fellowship  of  the  Round  Table  is 
dissolved  and  Arthur's  life  seems  a  failure  so  far  as  any  per- 
manent accomplishment  is  concerned.  God  fulfills  his  pur- 
poses in  other  ways.  Yet  Arthur  has  lived  his  life  to  the 
utmost  in  honorable  striving.     His  soul  has  never  yielded. 

"  He  passes  to  be  king  among  the  dead." 

Bedivere  heard 

"Sounds,  as  if  some  fair  city  were  one  voice 
Around  the  King  returning  from  his  wars." 

And  saw 

"the  speck  that  bore  the  King 

Down  that  long  water  opening  on  the  deep 

Somewhere  far  off,  pass  on  and  on,  and  go 

From  less  to  less  and  vanish  into  light." 

The  introductory  lines  (1-78)  explain  the  situation  and 
strike  the  emotional  keynote  of  the  idyll.  Note  the  gloomy 
and  somber  imagery : 

"And  fainter  onward,  like  wild  birds  that  change 
Their  season  in  the  night  and  ivail  their  way 
From  cloud  to  cloud,  down  the  long  wind  the  dream 
ShriU'd  "  etc. 

Contrast  the  mood  of  Arthur  here  with  that  of  his  last 
words  of  comfort  to  Sir  Bedivere  (lines  407-432).  Read  the 
last  interview  between  the  King  and  Queen  (Guinevere,  lines 
388-656). 

Read  the  description  of  the  battle  aloud  (lines  79-135). 
Where  does  the  sound  echo  the  sense  ?  Indicate  the  most 
strikingly  imaginative  lines.  Compare  the  battle  scene  in 
The  Coming  of  Arthur.  Analyze  the  meter  in  what  seem  to 
you  the  best  passages,  noting  the  effect  of  variations  from 
the  iambic  foot  (e.g.,  lines  81,  90,  91,  94,  108,  110,  117). 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  155 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Character  of  Gareth. 

2.  Elaine  and  Guinevere,  a  Character  Contrast. 

3.  Malory's  Morte  d' Arthur. 

4.  Lancelot's  Struggle. 

5.  Tennyson's  Blank  ^'crse. 

6.  The  Character  of  Gawain. 

7.  A  Comparison  of  One  of  the  Idylls  with  Malory's  Version. 

L'  ALLEGRO 

U  Allegro  is  properly  classed  as  a  lyric  poem  because  it 
aims  to  express  personal  emotion.  It  differs  from  a  drama 
or  an  epic  in  being  subjective  rather  than  objective.  Both 
the  drama  and  the  epic  present  characters  other  than  the 
writer,  and  portray  passion  not  necessarily  the  writer's  own. 
A  lyric  poem  is  the  outpouring  of  the  author's  personal  emo- 
tion, intense  but  not  necessarily  turbulent ;  so  that  although 
U  Allegro  is  calm  rather  than  tempestuous,  still  in  its  per- 
sonal tone  it  is  truly  lyric.  The  term  L'  Allegro  means  "  the 
mirthful  one."  To  express  the  lighter  mood  of  the  highly 
cultivated  person,  i.e.,  Milton  himself,  is  the  aim  of  the  poem. 
It  represents  Milton's  pleasures  in  the  country  life  at  Horton 
in  the  beautiful  English  Midlands. 

The  mood  is  expressed  by  a  series  of  pictures  calculated 
to  produce  a  quiet  pleasure.  At  the  beginning,  ]\Ielancholy, 
the  opposite  emotion,  is  personified,  surrounded  by  a  mass  of 
repulsive  imagery,  and  banished  to  a  fit  abode  of  darkness 
and  mist.  Then  Mirth  is  welcomed  and  carefully  described. 
Venus  and  Bacchus  are  rejected  as  probable  parents  of  Mirth 
because  that  parentage  suggests  coarser  enjoyments  than 
Milton  intends.  The  delicacy  and  refinement  of  Milton's  idea 
is  more  fitly  suggested  by  having  as  the  parents.  Zephyr,  the 
soft  M'est  wind,  and  Aurora,  the  goddess  of  the  dawn.     Then 


156  STUDIES    IX    LITERATURE 

follow  the  companions  of  Alirth,  described  in  picturesque 
language  ;  not  Laughter  simply  with  a  capital  L,  which  is  not 
picturesque,  but  "  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides,"  which 
is  decidedly  picturesque.  These  descriptions  are  followed 
in  turn  by  a  series  of  delightful  pictures  :  the  song  of  the  lark, 
the  glory  of  the  sunrise,  a  barnyard  scene,  a  hunting  scene, 
the  plowman,  the  milkmaid,  and  the  shepherd ;  the  country 
landscape,  the  rural  dance  in  the  checkered  shade,  the  fairy 
tales,  stories  of  medieval  pageantry,  the  comedies  of  Jonson 
and  Shakespeare,  and  finally  soft  Lj-dian  music. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Line  2.  Cerberus  was  thought  of  as  the  three-headed 
dog  with  snaky  hair  and  poison-dripping  jaws,  who  guarded 
the  entrance  to  the  lower  world.  The  Greeks,  like  all  other 
peoples,  thought  much  about  the  life  after  death  and  made 
pictures  and  stories  about  it.  Hades,  the  abode  of  all  the 
dead,  both  good  and  evil,  was  below  this  earth.  At  its  very 
bottom  was  Tartarus,  the  dungeon  of  the  gods  and  the  place 
of  punishment.  Li  another  part  was  Elysium,  the  abode  of 
the  blest.  Through  it  flowed  the  beautiful  river  Lethe,  the 
waters  of  which  made  the  spirit  forget  the  sorrows  of  life. 
The  other  rivers  of  Hades  were  awful  in  their  significance  — 
Cocytus,  the  river  of  wailing;  Phlegethon,  the  river  of  fire; 
Acheron,  the  river  of  woe ;  and  Styx,  the  river  of  hate.  On 
the  banks  of  the  St\Tc,  in  a  forlorn  cave,  the  terrible  Cerberus 
was  born  —  fitting  birthplace  for  a  being  so  distasteful  to 
L'  Allegro  as  Melancholy.  See  Gayley's  Classic  Myths  in 
English  Literature,  or  some  classical  dictionary. 

Line  10.  The  prevailing  meter  of  the  poem  is  iambic  tet- 
rameter;  but  in  the  first  ten  lines,  iambic  trimeters  alternate 
with  iambic  pentameters.  Explain  these  terms.  What  varia- 
tions from  the  normal  line  occur  in  lines  1,  7,  8? 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  157 

Lines  33-34.  What  is  the  rhythmic  effect  of  the  short 
vowels  and  stop  consonants  ?     Contrast, 

"But  let  my  iluc  feet  never  fail 
To  walk  the  studious  cloister's  pale." 

Line  45.  Is  it  the  lark  or  L'  Allegro  that  comes  to  the 
window  ? 

Line  57.     Why  does  L'  Allegro  wish  to  be  "not  unseen"  ? 

Lines  57-68.     Memorize. 

Line  99.  Explain  the  order  in  which  the  pleasures  are 
presented  in  the  poem.     Compare  II  Penseroso. 

Line  102.  Compare  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  I,  Scene  iv, 
lines  53  ff. 

Lines  120  ff.     Compare  the  tournament  in  Ivanhoe. 

Line  134.     What  plays  of  Shakespeare  are  suggested  by 

this  line  ? 

IL   PENSEROSO 

II  Penseroso,  "  the  serious  one,"  is  a  companion  poem  to 
V  Allegro.  In  the  first  place  it  is  almost  identical  in  struc- 
ture. Folly  is  banished,  her  parentage  given,  and  her  fit 
abode  tlescribed.  Then  Melanclioly  is  welcomed  and  her 
attendant  troupe  described.  Then  comes  a  series  of  pictures 
balancing  almost  exactly  the  pictures  in  L'  Allegro,  but  aim- 
ing to  interpret  the  mood  of  seriousness.  In  the  second  place 
the  moods  of  the  two  poems  are  complementary  rather  than 
antagonistic.  The  melancholy  which  is  banished  in  U  Al- 
legro is  quite  different  from  the  melancholy,  or  seriousness 
welcomed  in  II  Penseroso,  and  the  folly  banished  in  II  Pen- 
seroso is  quite  different  from  the  mirth  of  U  Allegro.  The 
two  poems  are  in  reality  two  complementary  moods  of 
Milton's  refined  personality,  expressing  both  the  religious 
fervor  of  the  Puritan  and  the  cultivated  and  courtly  qualities 
of  the  Cavalier. 


158  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Make  outlines  of  L'  Allegro  and  II  Penseroso  in  parallel 
columns,  showing  the  similarity  of  structure. 

Line  2.  Compare  the  parentage  of  Joy  with  the  parentage 
of  Mirth  in  L'  Allegro. 

Line  3.     Explain  "fixed  mind." 

Line  5.  Mark  the  scansion  of  line  5;  also  of  lines  8,  11, 
12,  27,  36,  53. 

Line  20.  Cassiope's  real  boast  was  not  of  her  own  but 
of  her  daughter's  beauty. 

Line  30.  See  Gayley's  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature, 
p.  39. 

Lines  45  ff .  Compare  each  picture  with  the  corresponding 
picture  in  L'  Allegro. 

Line  65.     Why  wnseen  ? 

Lines  85-92.  Read  aloud  to  bring  out  the  sweep  and  dig- 
nity of  the  rhythm.  Compare  the  tripping  movement  of 
most  of  L'  Allegro. 

Lines  113-115.  The  ring  gave  the  wearer  the  power  to 
understand  the  language  of  birds.  In  the  glass,  the  owner 
could  see  the  evil  that  threatened  him.  On  the  horse,  he 
could  go  whithersoever  he  wished  on  land,  on  sea,  or  through 
the  air. 

Lines  115-120.  Explain  the  allusions  to  Spenser's  Faerie 
Queene. 

Line  130.  Does  "minute  drops"  mean  small  drops  or 
frequent  drops  ?     How  so  ? 

Lines  147-150.     Explain  the  imagery,  phrase  by  phrase. 

COM  US 

The  type  of  drama  called  the  mask,  of  which  Milton's 
Camus  is  an  example,  originated  in  the  masquerade  dances 
at  court.     At  these  dances  the   dancers  were   introduced 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  159 

into  tho  hall  by  torchbearers,  while  the  musicians  played. 
The  women  first  danced  alone ;  then  the  men  alone ;  and 
then  the  men  and  women  together.  After  they  had  danced 
the  slow  and  stately  dances  assigned  to  them,  the  "  Morris 
dancers,"  probably  professionals,  came  in  to  dance  the  more 
lively  and  the  less  dignified  measures.  At  this  early  time 
there  was  no  singing  or  speaking. 

Gradually  scenery  and  conversation  were  introduced.  At 
an  entertainment  at  Westminster  Hall  in  the  year  1501  a 
castle  on  wheels,  after  the  fashion  of  the  wagons  on  which  the 
Miracle  plays  were  enacted,  was  drawn  into  the  hall  with 
eight  "  goodly  and  fresh  ladies  "  looking  out  of  the  windows. 
To  these  ladies  came  Hope  and  Desire  as  ambassadors  in  love 
from  certain  knights.  The  ladies  scorned  the  suit;  where- 
upon the  knights  stormed  the  castle  and  carried  off  the  ladies 
as  prizes.  The  dance  then  began.  Soon  it  became  common 
for  little  scenes  with  speaking  and  singing  to  precede  and  ex- 
plain the  dance.  The  characters  were,  for  the  most  part,  not 
men  and  women  out  of  real  life,  but  virtues  and  vices  person- 
ified, and  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  classical  mythology. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  mask 
received  a  remarkable  development.  The  best  poets  of  the 
time  contributed  the  words ;  the  best  musicians  of  the  time 
wrote  the  music ;  the  best  architects  were  employed  upon 
the  scenery.  The  costumes  were  extravagant.  Variety  was 
introduced  in  the  form  of  an  antimask,  in  which  profes- 
sional players  performed  comic  dances  to  give  relief  to  the 
slow  and  stately  measures.  Members  of  the  nobility  and  of 
learned  societies  vied  with  one  another  to  make  these  enter- 
tainments elaborate,  until  the  expense  of  producing  a  mask 
became  enormous.  The  Triumph  of  Peace,  performed  in  1634 
by  four  learned  societies,  is  said  to  have  cost  the  almost 
incredible  sum  of  $100,000. 


160  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

The  mask,  then,  differed  from  the  ordinary  drama  in  the 
following  particulars : 

(1)  The  scenery  was  elaborate. 

(2)  The  costumes  were  unusually  expensive. 

(3)  Music  and  dancing  were  the  important  factors. 

(4)  The  characters  were  allegorical  and  supernatural. 

(5)  The  dignified  parts  were  taken  by  amateur  actors, 
persons  of  high  social  standing.  Only  the  comic  antimask 
was  given  over  to  professionals.  (For  a  more  complete 
account  of  the  mask,  see  Introduction  to  Evans's  English 
Masque.) 

Comus  was  written  to  celebrate  the  entrance  of  John, 
Earl  of  Bridgewater,  upon  his  duties  as  Lord  President  of 
Wales,  and  was  performed  at  Ludlow  Castle  in  September, 
1634.  Inigo  Jones,  a  famous  architect  of  the  time,  contrived 
the  scenery.  Lawes,  a  musician  of  London  and  tutor  to 
the  children  of  the  Earl,  wrote  the  music  and  had  general 
charge  of  the  performance.  Lawes  himself  played  the  part 
of  the  Attendant  Spirit.  The  parts  of  the  Lady  and  the  Two 
Brothers  were  taken  by  the  children  of  the  Earl. 

Suggestions  for  Study 

Lines  5-11.     Express  the  thought  in  plain  language. 

Lines  12-13.     See  Matthew  xvi.  19. 

Lines  19-33.  Explain  how  all  this  mythology  is  worked 
into  an  elaborate  compliment  to  the  Earl  of  Bridgewater. 
Line  33  is  an  appeal  to  local  feeling. 

Lines  37-38.  Keep  the  scene  before  the  mind.  Remem- 
ber that  the  best  architect  of  the  time  contrived  the  scenery. 

Lines  50-72.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  power 
of  Circe  (see  Gayley's  Classic  Myths,  pp.  318  ff.)  and  that 
of  Comus  ?  Give  both  a  dramatic  and  a  symbolic  reason  for 
making  the  potion  of  Comus  affect  the  head  only. 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  161 

Lines  73-77.     What  is  tlic  allogorical  meaning  ? 

Lines  93  ff.  "  ( 'Omus"  is  a  Greek  word  meaning  revelry. 
Comus  and  his  rout  present  the  antimask.  The  parts 
were  tak(>n  ])y  hired  actors.  Picture  the  scene  (see  stage 
directions).  Expkain  the  change  in  the  meter.  What  is 
the  effect  of  the  change  ? 

Line  118.     Scan  the  Hne. 

Line  126.  Explain  how  this  is  a  low  standard  of  morals, 
and  so  expresses  the  moral  depravity  of  Comus. 

Lines  129-133.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  change  in  the 
meter  ? 

Line  144.     The  speaking  stops  here,  while  Comus  and  his 

company  dance. 

Line  145.     Why  change  from  the  short  rhymed  couplet 

to  blank  verse  ? 

Lines  153-154.  What  does  the  actor  do  as  he  pronounces 
these  lines?     (Cf.  line  165.) 

Line  179.    Explain  the  etymology  and  history  of  "wassail." 

Lines  188-190.  Note  how  definite  is  the  picture  of  the 
coming  of  night.  Explain  "sad,"  "votarist,"  "palmer," 
"weed,"  "Phoebus,"  "wain." 

Lines  219-225.  "Notice  the  ingenious  device  by  which 
the  Spirit,  hiding  above,  is  enabled  to  confirm  the  Lady's 
faith,  and  the  audience  is  reminded  of  his  presence  and  his 
purpose." 

Lines  230-243.  Read  aloud  to  catch  the  rhythm.  Look 
up  the  story  of  Echo  and  Narcissus  in  a  classical  dic- 
tionary. 

Line  243.  "Add  the  charm  of  Echo  to  the  music  of  the 
spheres"  (Bell).     Explain  "the  music  of  the  spheres." 

Line  244.     What  two  persons  are  complimented  ? 

Line  254.  The  Naiades  were  water  nymphs.  What  were 
wood  nymphs  called  (line  964)? 

M 


162  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Line  262.  Are  these  words  appropriate  in  the  mouth  of 
Comus  ? 

Line  273.  "Extreme"  is  accented  on  the  first  syllable. 
(Cf.  "complete,"  line  420.)  In  Milton  and  Shakespeare, 
adjectives  of  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the  first  syllable 
if 'the  word  following  is  accented  on  the  first  syllable.  Other- 
wise the  adjective  takes  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable.  Ex- 
plain how  the  metrical  requirements  determine  this  law. 

Lines  331  ff.  How  do  the  two  brothers  differ  in  tempera- 
ment ?     Is  the  dialogue  dramatic  ? 

Lines  381-384.     Memorize. 

Lines  441-452.  What  is  peculiar  about  Milton's  inter- 
pretation of  the  myths  of  Diana  and  Minerva?  (For  the 
myths,  see  Classical  Dictionary.) 

Line  495.  The  waters  stop  in  their  course  to  listen.  Cf. 
II  Penseroso,  59. 

Line  553.  One  manuscript  reads  "drowsy  frighted;" 
another,  "drowsy  flighted."     Which  seems  the  better? 

Lines  555-562.  A  splendid  example  of  exaggeration  used 
for  compliment  to  Lady  Alice. 

Line  637.  Where  has  the  story  which  is  here  referred  to 
been  mentioned  before  ? 

Line  656.  Why  does  the  Spirit  leave  to  the  brothers  the 
task  of  rescuing  the  Lady  ? 

Lines  667  ff .  Explain  how  truth  and  falsehood  are  craftily 
mixed  in  the  words  of  Comus.  Has  the  conversation  which 
follows  any  bearing  upon  the  notions  about  life  held  by  the 
Cavaliers  and  the  Puritans?  Milton  is  not  quite  in  sym- 
pathy with  either  party. 

Lines  756-800.  Milton  has  forgotten  that  it  is  the  Lady 
who  is  talking,  and  speaks  in  his  own  person.  Note  other 
undramatic  passages  in  the  poem. 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  163 

Line  814.  Why  does  Milton  make  the  success  of  the 
])rothers  only  partial  ? 

Lines  922  ff.  Read  aloud  to  get  the  beauty  of  the  lines, 
and  to  visualize  the  imagery. 

Line  957.     The  second  part  of  the  antimask. 

Line  965.     What  takes  place  on  the  stage,  lines  965-966  ? 

Line  1000.    For  Venus  and  Adonis,  see  Classical  Dictionary. 

Line  1005.  For  Cupid  and  Psyche,  see  Pater's  Marius 
the  Epicurean,  Chapter  V,  or  William  Morris's  Earthly 
Paradise. 

Topics  for  Essays  and  Reports 

1.  The  Structure  of  U  Allegro  and  II  Penseroso. 

2.  The  Story  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice. 

3.  The  Story  of  Echo  and  Narcissus. 

4.  The  Story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche. 

5.  The  Powers  of  Circe  and  Comus. 

6.  How  far  Milton  was  a  Puritan. 

7.  The  Mask  and  the  Drama  compared. 

8.  Milton's  Political  Life. 

THE  GOLDEN   TREASURY,   BOOK  IV 

The  poems  of  this  book  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  the 
first  thirty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  blossoming 
time  of  modern  English  poetrj'.  The  tendency  toward  the 
emotional  and  imaginative,  which  had  steadily  increased 
during  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  reached  its 
climax  with  the  publication  of  The  Lyrical  Ballads  in  1798, 
and  maintained  ascendency  for  the  next  quarter  of  a  centur}' 
in  the  poetry  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley, 
and  Keats.  This  poetry  has  the  following  marked  character- 
istics : 

(1)  Much  of  it  treats  of  common  life,  particularly  English 
rural  life.     Princes  and  nobles  were  no  longer  necessary  for 


164  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

heroes.  The  lives  of  the  poor  and  the  lowly  were  thought  to 
exemplify  better  the  most  sincere  and  fundamental  human 
emotions.     Artificiality  gave  place  to  simplicity  and  sincerity. 

(2)  There  was  a  renewed  interest  in  the  old  ballads  and 
in  the  mystery  and  superstition  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
atmosphere  of  romance  was  greatly  loved. 

(3)  Interest  in  Nature  was  intense.  The  poets  lived 
much  in  the  country  and  had  an  intimate  relation  with  field 
and  hill  and  stream.  All  the  changing  moods  of  Nature  were 
sympathetically  studied,  and  the  emotions  which  the  poets 
felt  in  the  presence  of  Nature  were  minutely  described. 

(4)  Free  rein  was  given  to  the  emotions  and  passions.  No 
period  in  Englisli  literature  is  richer  in  genuine  lyric  poetry. 
Love  lyrics  are  especially  numerous. 

(5)  The  note  of  melancholy  is  often  sounded.  The  sorrow 
of  disappointed  love,  eulogy  of  the  dead,  serious  reflections 
on  the  deeper  meaning  of  life  —  all  find  their  place  in  this 
period  of  varied  emotional  and  imaginative  interests. 

(6)  The  variety  of  metrical  forms  is  noticeable.  The  he- 
roic couplet  of  Pope  had  lost  its  great  popularity.  Blank 
verse  and  the  octosyllabic  couplet  of  Milton  had  found  favor, 
and  these  were  followed  by  a  great  variety  of  verse  forms 
fitly  expressing  the  variety  of  emotion.  The  sonnet  was 
particularly  cultivated.  The  ode  furnished  the  form  for  the 
most  dignified  and  exalted  moods. 

(a)  Narratives  of  Common  Life 

Lucy  Gray  (ccxxvi)  illustrates  the  narrative  of  common 
life  at  its  best.  There  is  nothing  extraordinary  in  the  subject 
matter.  The  style  is  simple  and  sincere  without  any  of  the 
adornments  of  "poetic  diction."  Yet,  here  is  genuine  poetry. 
Emotion  and  imagination  have  elevated  the  story  above 
the  commonplace  and  the  prosaic.     The  poetic  quality  does 


NARRATIVE   AND    LYRIC    POETRY  165 

not  lie  in  diction  and  rimo  alone,  but  in  the  very  texture 
of  the  thought.  Read  the  poem  a  number  of  times,  until 
this  fact  becomes  clear. 

Simon  Lee  (cdxxiii)  and  Ruth  (cccxx)  also  illustrate 
the  narrative  of  common  life.  Which  seems  to  you 
the  more  poetic?  Wh}-?  Compare  them  with  Lucy 
Gray.  Indicate  passages  which  emotion  and  imagination 
have  not  lifted  out  of  the  commonplace  into  real  poetry  ? 
Read,  for  comparison,  Wordsworth's  Michael  and  Tennyson's 
Dora. 

The  Two  April  Mornings  (cccxxx)  and  The  Fountain 
(cccxxxi)  are  not  narratives,  but  incidents.  They  are 
little  pictures.  The  author  seizes  upon  a  life  at  some 
significant  moment  and  gives  an  impression  which  explains 
the  whole  life.  These  poems  are  as  simple  and  direct  as 
Simon  Lee  and  Ruth.  Are  they  more  poetic  or  less  poetic  ? 
Why?  Characterize  Matthew,  citing  passages  to  support 
your  statements.  Was  he  a  pleasant  companion  ?  Was 
he  a  happy  man  ?  Point  out  striking  similes  and  compari- 
sons. 

(b)  The  Influence  of  Ballads 

Jack  of  Hazeldean  (ccxxvii)  is  a  modern  ballad  which 
seeks  to  reproduce  both  the  subject  matter  and  the  simple 
objective  style  of  the  old  ballads.  There  is  no  thought  of 
reading  into  the  material  any  modern  ideas  of  life.  Explain 
how  a  judicious  selection  of  material  makes  possible  the  leav- 
ing of  much  to  be  read  between  the  lines.  Comment  on 
the  unity  of  the  poem. 

The  Pride  of  Youth  (cclxxiii)  also  illustrates  these 
simple  objective  qualities.  The  poem  is  dramatic  rather  than 
analytical  (see  Palgrave's  note).  What  is  the  "pathetic 
meaning"  of  the  poem  ? 


166  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

La  Belle  Dame  Sans  Merci  (ccxxxvi).  Has  this  poem 
any  suggested  meaning  ?  For  instance,  does  the  fairy  stand 
for  Poesy  and  the  disconsolate  knights  for  unsuccessful  poets  ? 
Or  does  the  poem  suggest  the  modern  conception  of  the  selfish 
woman  who  exacts  everything  from  the  lover,  but  brings  to 
him  no  inspiration  and  uplift  ?  Cf .  Browning's  Andrea  del 
Sarto  and  Burne-Jones's  picture  The  Vampire,  together  with 
the  verses  written  by  Kipling  to  interpret  the  picture.  Read 
Keats's  poem  aloud  till  you  catch  the  rich  music  of  the  lines. 
Are  the  adjectives  and  adverbs  well  selected?     Why? 

Read  in  connection  with  these  ballads  numbers  ccxiii, 
ccxxv,  ccxxxviii,  ccxi,  ccxli,  cclxxxi,  cclxxv. 

(c)  War  Poems 

Closely  allied  to  the  ballads  and  narratives  of  common 
life  are  the  war  poems :  Ye  Mariners  of  England  (ccl), 
Hohenlinden  (cclix),  AJter  Blenheim  (cclx).  The  Battle 
of  the  Baltic  (ccli).   The  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore  (cclxii). 

The  Soldier's  Dream  (eccix)  is  particularly  remarkable 
for  unity  and  for  careful  selection  of  material,  specific,  graphic, 
emotional.  Explain,  and  cite  passages  in  illustration.  Find 
other  poems  of  war  and  patriotism  in  this  volume,  and  com- 
pare them  with  those  already  mentioned. 

{d)  Interest  in  Nature 

The  poets  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  studied  Nature 
intimately  and  often  wrote  with  the  eye  upon  the  object ; 
consequently  their  work  is  specific,  detailed,  accurate.  To 
be  sure,  their  descriptions  are  not  scientific ;  they  do  not 
always  identify  species.  But  that  is  not  the  object  of  poetic 
description.  The  poet  does  not  necessarily  select  the  details 
which  appeal  to  the  understanding  alone,  and  which  make  it 
possible  to  identify  the  object  when  seen  again.     He  chooses 


NARRATIVE   AND    LYRIC    POETRY  167 

rather  those  details  which  interpret  his  emotions  in  the 
presence  of  the  ol).)ect.  Ho  is  interested  in  the  emotional 
and  imaginative  imi)ressi()ii.  His  observations,  however, 
are  often  quite  as  accurate  and  keen  as  those  of  the  scientist. 
The  Green  Linnet  (cclxxxviii)  is  an  example  of  poetic 
description.  For  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  between 
scientific  and  artistic  description  compare  this  poem  with 
the  following  description  from  a  book  on  ornithology. 

"Tail  very  deeply  forked;  outer  feathers  (of  tail)  several  inches 
longer  than  the  inner,  very  narrow  toward  the  end ;  above  glossy- 
blue,  with  concealed  white  in  the  middle  of  the  back ;  throat  chest- 
nut ;  rest  of  lower  part  reddish-white,  not  conspicuously  different ;  a 
steel  blue  collar  on  the  upper  part  of  the  breast,  interrupted  in  the 
middle ;  tail  feathers  with  a  white  spot  near  the  middle,  on  the 
inner  web.  Female  with  the  outer  tail  feather  not  quite  so  long. 
Length,  six  and  ninety  one-hundredths  inches;  wing  five  inches, 
tail,  four  and  fifty  one-hundredths  inches." 

Wherein  lies  the  difference  ?  What  is  the  guiding  principle 
in  the  choice  of  details  in  each  ? 

The  Daffodils  (ccci)  and  Kubla  Khan  (cccxv)  are 
also  poems  in  which  details  are  chosen  for  their  emotional 
and  imaginative  suggestion  as  well  as  for  their  picturesque- 
ness.  Classify  with  these,  other  poems  which  show  the  same 
qualities.  Explain  how  The  Daffodils  illustrates  Words- 
worth's idea  that  "poetry  is  emotion  recollected  in  tran- 
quillity." Analyze  the  meter  of  Kubla  Khan,  showing  that 
the  changes  in  rhythm  are  in  harmony  with  the  changes  in 
thought. 

My  heart  leaps  wp  (cccxxxvii)  has  been  called  Words- 
worth's poetic  creed.  Explain  th(^  creed.  What  is  meant 
by,  "The  Child  is  father  of  the  Man"? 

The  Reaper  (ccxcviii)  illustrates  the  reflective,  moraliz- 
ing attitude,  calm,  .serene,  elevated.     Explain.     This  refiec- 


168  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

tive  quality  in  Nature  poetry  is  noteworthy.  The  passionate 
feeling  in  the  presence  of  Nature  does  not  always  become 
poetry  at  once.  Wordsworth,  the  greatest  of  Nature  poets, 
called  poetry,  "  Emotion  recollected  in  tranquillity."  There 
is  a  calm  philosophical  tone  throughout  his  work.  He 
believed  the  objects  of  Nature  are  the  language  of  God,  and 
that  it  is  the  function  of  the  poet  to  translate  this  divine 
language  into  the  language  of  men.  Wordsworth's  feeling 
for  Nature  is  clearly  explained  in  his  poem  on  Tintern  Abbey, 
which  should  be  carefully  studied  in  this  connection. 

The  Reverie  of  Poor  Susan  (ccxcix)  also  illustrates 
Wordsworth's  reflective  method.  It  is  a  beautiful  picture, 
rich  in  pathos.  Is  the  introductory  couplet  admirable? 
Give  reasons.  Is  the  picture  the  real  point  of  the  poem  ?  If 
not,  what  is? 

To  the  Cuckoo  (cclxxxix)  shows  this  reflective  mood  of 
Wordsworth  flashing  up  into  exaltation.  Determine  what 
other  poems  are  to  be  classified  with  this,  and  make  brief 
comments  on  their  striking  characteristics.  Explain  the 
effect  which  the  songs  of  different  birds  have  upon  you. 

To  the  Skylark  (cclxxxvi)  should  be  compared  with 
Shelley's  To  a  Skylark  (cclxxxvii).  These  poems  bring 
into  contrast  the  prevailing  moods  of  the  two  men.  Words- 
worth remains  upon  the  ground,  and  connects  his  skylark 
with  the  earth  and  with  the  life  of  men.  Shelley  soars  with 
his  skylark  in  rapt  abandonment.  Shelley's  temperament  is 
more  passionate,  or  at  any  rate,  less  reflective  than  is  Words- 
worth's. Both  poets  employ  metaphor  and  simile.  Point 
out  the  most  effective  examples  of  each,  giving  reasons  for 
your  choice.  Is  the  meter  of  each  poem  appropriate  to  the 
poet's  mood?     Explain. 

Written  Among  the  Euganean  Hills  (cccxxi)  shows  the 
luxuriant  picturesqueness  as  well  as  the  passionate  tone  of 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  169 

Shelley's  imagination.  Explain  the  symbolism  of  the  first 
division.  Find  other  examples  of  symbolism.  Write  a  few 
paragraphs  contrasting  Shelley's  attitude  toward  Nature 
with  that  of  Wordsworth,  illustrating  from  the  poems. 
Which  is  the  more  musical  poet  ?  Cite  the  most  musical 
passages. 

(e)     Poems  of  Love 

More  than  half  of  the  poems  in  Book  IV  have  to  do  with 
love.  "AH  its  aspects  are  portrayed ;  its  despair,  its  exalta- 
tion, its  joys,  its  sorrows,  its  abandonment,  its  reflective 
richness. 

She  was  a  Phantom  of  DcllgJit  (ccxvii)  is  rich  in  reflec- 
tion. Wordsworth  never  allows  his  heart  to  run  away  with 
his  head.  Is  there  any  example  in  this  poem  of  an  ill-chosen 
word?  Is  this  poem  superior  in  any  way  to  the  poem  by 
Lord  Byron  which  immediately  precedes  (ccxvi)  ? 

Lovers  Philosophy  (ccxxviii)  and  The  Indian  Serenade 
(ccxv)  show  the  abantlonment  of  love,  a  mood  very  char- 
acteristic of  Shelley.  Find  other  examples  in  Shelley's 
poems.  Compare  Shelley  with  Wordsworth  in  this  respect, 
citing  passages  to  illustrate  the  comparison. 

She  dwelt  among  the  untrodden  ways  (ccxx)  coukl  hardly 
be  surpassed  for  simple  and  sincere  pathos.  Which  lines 
best  illustrate  simplicity  and  pathos?  Characterize  the 
imagery  of  the  second  stanza. 

A  Lost  Love  (ccxxiv)  and  At  the  Mid-hour  of  Night 
(ccxlv)  portray  the  sweetness  of  sorrow  to  which  the  soul 
has  become  partly  reconciled. 

When  ive  two  parted  (ccxxxiv)  is  the  cry  of  despair.  How 
is  it  typical  of  Byron's  sad,  rebellious  experience?  What 
other  love  poems  in  the  collection  are  striking?  Explain 
why  they  interest  you. 


170  STUDIES   IX   LITERATURE 

(/)     The  Tone  of  Melancholy 

It  has  been  often  remarked  that  a  deep  strain  of  melan- 
choly runs  through  English  poetry  :  reflection  on  the  mysteries 
of  life,  sad  retrospection  over  disappointments,  the  dwelling 
on  lost  associations.  The  Old  Familiar  Faces  (cclxiv)  is 
one  of  the  tenderest  and  richest.  Indicate  others  which 
seem  to  you  good  examples  in  this  kind,  and  explain  why  you 

choose  them. 

(g)     The  Sonnets 

The  varied  verse  forms  of  this  volume  give  excellent 
opportunity  for  the  study  of  versification.  The  subject 
should  be  looked  up  carefully  in  Bright  and  Miller's  English 
Versification  or  in  some  similar  book.  Various  poems,  e.g., 
Kuhla  Khan  (cccxvi)  should  be  analyzed. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  forms  is  the  sonnet.  It  con- 
sists of  fourteen  iambic  pentameter  lines,  e.g., 

"  The  world/is  too/much  with/us.     Late/and  soon" 
w  ^/^  ^/w  ^/w  ^/w  ^/ 

The  arrangement  of  the  rimes  distinguishes  two  well 
established  types,  the  Petrarchan  and  the  Shakespearean. 

The  Petrarchan  is  divided  into  two  parts,  an  octave  and 
a  sestet.  The  rime  scheme  of  the  octave,  or  first  eight  lines, 
is  fixed ;  those  of  the  sestet,  or  last  six  lines,  are  variable. 
In  general,  the  rime  scheme  is  as  follows  :  octave,  abbaabba; 
sestet,  cdecde.  However,  almost  any  combmation  may 
be  used  in  the  sestet  except  a  couplet  at  the  end.  Ccx 
is  a  typical  Petrarchan  sonnet. 

The  Shakespearean  sonnet  consists  of  three  quatrains 
(four  lines)  with  alternate  rimes,  followed  by  a  couplet,  as 
follows :  abab,  cdcd,  efef,  gg.  Of  the  twenty-two  sonnets 
in  this  volume  only  three  (or  possibly  four)  may  be  called 
Shakespearean  (ccxlii,  ccxliii,  ccxxxiii,  ccxcv). 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  171 

The  Petrarchan  form  is  l^ost  adapted  to  a  theme  which 
naturally  divides  itself  into  two  parts,  the  one  balancing 
itself  against  the  other.  The  theme  rises  and  develops  in 
the  octave,  it  falls  and  concludes  in  the  sest(^t. 

Milton:  thou  shouldHt  be  living  at  this  hour  (cclvii)  is  an 
almost  perfect  Petrarchan  sonnet.  The  picture  of  Eng- 
lish conditions  in  the  octave  is  set  off  against  the  character 
and  influence  of  Milton  in  the  sestet.  The  division  is  exact. 
Explain  more  fully  the  social  and  political  conditions  to 
which  Wordsworth  refers. 

By  the  Sea  (cccix).  Explain-  how  the  octave  is  set  off 
against  the  sestet.  Comment  on  the  choice  of  adjectives 
and  on  the  effectiveness  of  the  imagery.  Describe  in  more 
detail  the  picture  which  the  second  and  third  lines  suggest. 

The  world  is  too  much  with  us  (cccxxvi)  gives  the  situa- 
tion in  the  octave,  and  the  conclusion  in  the  sestet.  The 
connection  in  thought  between  octave  and  sestet  is  here  more 
marked.  The  turning  point,  however,  is  not  exactly  at  the 
end  of  the  octave.  Is  this  a  blemish  ?  Is  the  thought  of 
the  poem  true  of  most  of  us?  Explain.  Why  is  it  worth 
w"hile  to  cultivate  the  imagination  and  the  emotions  ? 

On  First  Looking  into  Chapman' s  Homer  (ccx).  Here, 
also,  the  balance  of  thought  is  exact.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, Cortez  was  not  the  first  to  view  the  Pacific.  Who  was  ? 
Read  Matthew  Arnold's  criticism  of  Chapman's  Homer  in 
On  the  Study  of  Celtic  Literature  and  on  Translating  Homer. 
Was  Keats  a  classical  scholar?  Find  the  sonnets  in  which 
the  thought  is  not  perfectly  adapted  to  the  form. 

The  Shakespearean  form  is  best  adapted  to  a  thought 
which  gradually  develops  from  different  points  of  view  to  a 
conclusion  or  a  climax  at  the  end,  which  can  be  summed  up 
in  a  couplet. 

The    Terrors    of   Death    (ccxliii)    is    a    perfect    example, 


172  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

consisting  of  three  "when"  ideas,  in  three  quatrains, 
brought  to  a  conckision  in  a  couplet.  To  what  facts  in  the 
life  of  Keats  does  this  sonnet  have  reference? 

The  Human  Seasons  (cccxxxii)  is  adapted  in  thought 
to  the  Shakespearean  form,  l)ut  the  concluding  couplet  is 
not  a  summary  or  an  application  of  the  theme. 

Bright  Star  (ccxlii).  Is  the  theme  here  more  suitable 
to  the  Shakespearean  or  to  the  Petrarchan  form  ?     Why  ? 

Admonition  to  a  Traveler  (ccxcvi)  has  a  theme  which 
naturally  develops  through  three  parts  to  a  conclusion.  It 
concludes  with  a  couplet  in  the  Shakespearean  manner,  but 
begins  with  an  octave  in  the  Petrarchan  manner. 

(/?)     The  Odes 

The  most  dignified,  sublime,  and  philosophical  themes  in 
this  volume  are  cast  into  the  form  of  odes.  Some  odes  are 
comparatively  regular  in  their  verse  form,  being  practically  a 
series  of  uniform  stanzas  (cf.  Ode  to  Duty,  cclii).  Others  are 
irregular  (cf.  Ode  on  Intimations  of  Immortality,  cccxxxviii). 
Look  up  the  subject  of  odes  in  Bright  and  Miller's  English 
Versification,  pp.  139  ff.,  or  in  an  encyclopedia. 

Ode  to  Duty  (cclii).  Notice  the  dignity,  elevation, 
philosophic  calm,  moral  stability,  and  spiritual  poise  of  this 
poem.  Give  a  brief  explanation  of  how  the  thought  is  devel- 
oped from  stanza  to  stanza.  Give  a  brief  but  complete 
explanation  of  the  metrical  form. 

Ode  to  a  Nightingale  (ccxc).  Paraphrase  closely  the 
first  stanza  to  bring  out  the  exact  meaning  of  lines  4,  5,  6, 
and  7.  Parse  "being,"  line  6.  Memorize  the  seventh 
stanza.  Read  the  story  of  Ruth  in  the  Bible  in  order  to  get 
the  full  poetic  beauty  of  this  passage.  What  words  in  the 
poem  seem  to  you  particularly  well  chosen  ? 

Matthew  Arnold  well  said  that  one  of  the  best  means  of 


NARRATIVE   AND   LYRIC    POETRY  173 

getting  an  approciation  of  poetry  is  to  collect  a  few  lines  of 
undoubted  poetic  power,  brood  over  them  sympathetically, 
and  then  use  them  as  tests  by  which  to  judge  other  lines. 
Such  lines  in  this  poem  are : 

"To  ccaw  upon  the  midnight  without  pain." 

"She  stood  in  tears  amid  the  alien  com." 

"Magic  casements  opening  on  the  foam 
Of  perilous  seas  in  faery  lands  forlorn." 

Find  other  lines  which  seem  to  you  to  have  fine  emotional 
or  imaginative  (lualities.  Select  two  or  three  adjectives 
which  seem  to  you  to  characterize  best  the  prevailing  atmos- 
phere of  this  poem. 

Explain  "Lethe,"  "dryad,"  "Provengal,"  "Hippocrene," 
"Bacchus." 

Ode  to  the  West  Wind  (cccxxii).  The  metrical  form  of 
this  ode  is  terza  rima,  the  meter  of  Dante's  Divine  Comedy. 
Analyze  and  explain  it. 

If  the  ideas  of  the  poem  are  not  clear,  study  the  syntax 
more  carefully.  If  the  poem  does  not  appeal  to  the  emotions 
and  the  imagination,  try  to  visualize  the  imagery  more 
completely.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  A  scholarly  apprecia- 
tion of  poetry  requires  at  least :  (1)  discrimination  in  the 
meaning  of  words,  (2)  a  sure  knowledge  of  syntax,  (3)  the 
power  to  visualize  imagery,  and  (4)  an  ear  for  rhythm. 

Analyze  the  thought  of  the  poem.  What  relation  has  the 
fourth  stanza  to  the  preceding  stanzas  ?  Explain  how  the 
thought  of  the  last  stanza  reverts  to  the  thought  of  the  first. 

Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn  (cccxxviii).  There  are  urns  in 
the  British  Museum  which  may  have  suggested  the  detail 
of  this  poem,  but  no  one  of  them  is  here  exactly  described. 
What  would  pictures  illustrating  the  poem  look  like  ?  How 
many  distinct  pictures  are  there?     Indicate  wherein  pic- 


174  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

tures  could  not  adequately  express  the  content  of  the 
poem. 

The  last  two  lines  are  said  to  constitute  the  poetic  creed 
of  Keats.  Criticize  that  creed.  Compare  it  with  the  creed 
of  Wordsworth  (cccxxxvii). 

Ode  on  Intimations  of  Immortality  (cccxxxviii).  Make 
a  brief  summary  of  the  poem  —  such  a  summary  as 
might  begin :  "My  feeling  for  Nature  has  changed  with  the 
years.  The  objects  of  Nature  are  still  beautiful,  but  a  cer- 
tain early  glory  has  departed.  However,  let  not  my  grief 
wrong  the  season,"  etc.  Relate  any  similar  experience  of 
your  own  childhood.  Memorize  the  nineteen  lines  be- 
ginning, "Our  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting,"  and 
also  the  seven  lines  beginning,  "Hence  in  a  season  of  calm 
weather." 

Characteristics  of  the  Poets 

1.  Which  poet  represented  in  these  selections  seems  to  have  been 
most  affected  by  the  old  ballads  and  the  atmosphere  of  chivalry  ? 

2.  Which  poet  is  the  most  passionate  ? 

3.  Which  is  the  most  reflective  ? 

4.  Which  shows  the  deepest  interest  in  Nature  ? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  between  Wordsworth  and  Shelley  in 
their  attitude  toward  Nature  (of.  the  poems  on  the  skylark)  ? 

6.  Which  is  the  most  musical  poet  ? 

Topics  for  Short  Compositions 

1.  Wordsworth's  Ideas  about  Nature. 

2.  The  English  Lake  District. 

3.  Why  some  Students  do  not  appreciate  Poetry. 

4.  Renewed  Interest  in  Country  Life  in  America. 

5.  A  Nature  Description. 

6.  The  Songs  of  Birds  distinguished. 


PART   II 
A  BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


1m  PfetK  fSn;o  i,:ii!i-   r<)n-iivjif<5^,   QCffi     ' 


if/,'-     ../■  ■■■>  v.     '"'  /*;.         , 

ii*it«ia«tfj'W«t>.<'irr'-t  .^i[r*t-<nt^  -jtei  .^,  rut.-' 
;-?lnJ'  55m<  mu^tReS  to  tusk-  &'TnnfnfljkniS  ^vttk.  ' 
P;  ?|  <i  V  iN«i!  ^-&<V  ^!if  fiv-;  gftc.  .5^^<ft^rJ  Oatt 

U4l 


Thk  First  I'AtiE  of  "  1'iek.s  Plowman." 
Facaimile  from  thu  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  OLD  ENGLISH  PERIOD 
(a)  THE  EARLY  LITERATURE  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS 

The  People.  —  For  the  beginnings  of  English  literature  we 
must  go  back  to  a  time  before  our  Anglo-Saxon  forefathers 
came  to  England,  when  ihey  were  still  living  on  the  shores 
of  the  North  Sea  in  Denmark  and  about  the  mouth  of 
the  Elbe  River  in  northern  Germany.  They  were  Low- 
German  tribes,  allied  more  closely  to  the  modern  Dutch 
than  to  the  modern  Germans  both  by  language  and  by  blood. 
It  is  thought  that  they  did  not  penetrate  far  into  the  swamps 
and  forests  of  the  interior,  but  lived  along  the  shore  and  on 
the  sea.  They  were  uncivilized  people,  but  not  savages. 
Their  literature  shows  —  and  we  always  go  to  literature  to 
find  out  the  inner  life  of  a  people  —  that  they  loved  their 
homes,  reverenced  their  women,  felt  the  influences  of  Nature, 
believed  in  their  gods,  loved  personal  freedom,  sought  honor 
and  glory.  They  were  adventurous  seafarers,  stern  of 
heart  and  strong  of  hand ;   but  they  were  not  pirates. 

Their  Gloomy  Life.  —  Their  life  was  gloomy.  Denmark  and 
Germany  are  lands  of  cloud  and  mist.  During  the  entire 
year  the  sun  can  be  seen  only  a  third  of  the  time  that  it  is 
above  the  horizon.  In  winter,  darkness  comes  in  the  middle 
of  the  afternoon.  Moreover,  the  struggle  with  storm  and  sea 
was  long  and  hard.  No  wonder  this  people  was  a  stern  and 
somber  race,  with  a  gloomy  religion,  and  with  melancholy 
ideas  of  life  and  fate.  Life  was  almost  without  joy  save 
N  177 


178  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

perhaps  the  joy  of  conflict ;  and  the  whole  of  man's  life,  with 
whatever  of  joy  it  might  have,  was  but  the  flicker  of  a  candle 
between  two  great  darknesses.  The  essential  gloom  of  it 
was  well  expressed  somewhat  later  in  Northumbria  by  one 
of  their  own  chiefs  : 

"You  remember,  it  may  be,  0  king,  that  which  sometimes 
happens  in  winter  when  3^ou  are  seated  at  table  with  your  earls 
and  thanes.  Your  fire  is  lighted,  and  your  hall  warmed,  and  without 
is  rain  and  snow  and  storm.  Then  comes  a  swallow  flying  across 
the  hall ;  he  enters  by  one  door,  and  leaves  by  another.  The  brief 
moment  while  he  is  ^vithin  is  pleasant  to  him ;  he  feels  not  rain  nor 
cheerless  winter  weather ;  but  the  moment  is  brief  —  the  bird  flies 
away  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  and  he  passes  from  winter  to  winter. 
Such,  methinks,  is  the  life  of  man  on  earth,  compared  with 
the  uncertain  time  beyond.  It  appears  for  a  while ;  but  what  is  the 
time  which  comes  after  —  the  time  which  was  before  ?  We  know 
not.  If,  then,  this  new  doctrine  [Christianity]  may  teach  us  some- 
what of  greater  certainty,  it  were  well  that  we  should  regard  it." 

Literature  of  Tradition.  —  Life,  however,  was  not  alto- 
gether without  solace.  In  the  long  winter  evenings  the  lord 
and  his  retainers  gathered  in  the  hall  and  sat  around  the 
mead  bench,  drinking  together  and  listening  to  the  song  of 
the  scop  and  the  gleeman.  These  poets  and  reciters  kept 
alive  the  traditions  of  the  people,  interpreting  their  ideals 
in  mjrth  and  legend  and  heroic  story.  This  was  their  lit- 
erature ;  not  books,  not  even  manuscripts.  Stories  of  gods 
and  heroes  passed  from  generation  to  generation  by  word  of 
mouth,  even  as  the  story  of  the  wrath  of  Achilles  was  handed 
down  among  the  prehistoric  Greeks.  Some  of  these  stories 
are  history ;  most  of  them,  myths  about  the  struggle  of  the 
race  with  sea  and  storm  and  pestilence. 

When  our  forefathers  came  to  England  in  the  fifth  century, 
they  brought  with  them  these  traditions  just  as  the  pre- 


THE   OLD   ENGLISH    PERIOD  179 

historic  Greeks  took  their  traditions  to  Asia  Minor ;  and  just 
as  the  story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  deveh)ped  in  Asia  Minor  into 
The  Iliad,  so  the  Anglo-Saxon  legends  developed  in  England 
into  an  Anglo-Saxon  epic,  Beowulf. 

"  Beowulf."  —  The  scene  of  the  early  part  of  this  story  is 
Denmark.  Hrothgar,  King  of  the  Danes,  had  built  a  splendid 
mead  hall  by  the  sea,  where  he  and  his  thanes  gathered  to 
feast  and  to  listen  to  the  songs  of  the  gleemen.  But  a  fright- 
ful monster,  Grendel,  came  now  and  again  and  carried  off 
the  warriors  to  devour  them  in  his  lair.  Arms  could  not 
prevail  against  him,  and  joy  was  turned  to  mourning  in 
Hrothgar 's  Hall.  At  length  from  across  the  sea  came  the 
hero  Beowulf  to  fight  with  the  monster  in  the  hall,  and  to 
pursue  him  wounded  to  the  death  to  his  lair  beneath  the 
waters  of  a  sea  pool.  Here  Beowulf  also  meets  and  destroys 
Grendel's  mother.  The  hero  then  returns  in  great  honor 
to  his  home  in  South  Sweden,  where  he  rules  over  his  people 
for  fifty  years.  In  his  old  age,  he  destroys  a  fire  dragon,  and 
thereby  secures  for  his  people  a  great  treasure-hoard  ;  but,  in 
the  battle,  he  loses  his  own  life.  A  grateful  people  burn  his 
body  in  pomp  upon  a  funeral  pyre  and,  upon  a  promontory 
overlooking  the  sea,  erect  a  memorial  barrow  above  his  ashes. 
The  end  of  the  poem  is  too  fine  to  pass  over  without  quoting  : 

"Then  fashioned  for  him  the  folk  of  Geats 
firm  on  the  earth  a  funeral-pile, 
and  hung  it  with  helmets  and  harness  of  war 
and  breastplates  bright,  as  the  boon  he  asked ; 
and  they  laid  amid  it  the  mighty  chieftain, 
heroes  mourning  their  master  dear. 
Then  on  the  hill  that  hugest  of  balefires 
the  warriors  wakened.     Wood-smoke  rose 
black  over  blaze,  and  blent  was  the  roar 
of  flame  with  weeping  (the  wind  was  still), 


180  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

till  the  fire  had  broken  the  frame  of  bones, 

hot  at  the  heart.     In  heavy  mood 

their  misery  moaned  they,  their  master's  death. 

Wailing  her  woe,  the  widow  old, 

her  hair  upbound,  for  Beowulf's  death 

sung  in  her  sorrow,  and  said  full  oft 

she  dreaded  the  doleful  days  to  come, 

deaths  enow,  and  doom  of  battle, 

and  shame.  —  The  smoke  by  the  sky  was  devoured. 

"The  folk  of  the  Weders  fashioned  there 
on  the  headland  a  barrow  broad  and  high, 
by  ocean-farers  far  descried : 
in  ten  days'  time  their  toil  had  raised  it, 
the  battle-brave's  beacon.     Round  brands  of  the  pyre 
a  wall  they  built,  the  worthiest  ever 
that  wit  could  prompt  in  their  wisest  men. 
They  placed  in  the  barrow  that  precious  booty, 
the  rounds  and  the  rings  they  had  reft  erewhile, 
hardy  heroes,  from  hoard  in  cave,  — 
trusting  the  ground  with  treasure  of  earls, 
gold  in  the  earth,  where  ever  it  lies  useless  to  men  as  of 
yore  it  was. 

"  Then  about  that  barrow  the  battle-keen  rode 
atheling-born,  a  band  of  twelve, 
lament  to  make,  to  mourn  their  king, 
chant  their  dirge,  and  their  chieftain  honor. 
They  praised  his  earlship,  his  acts  of  prowess 
worthily  witnessed  :   and  well  it  is 
that  men  their  master-friend  mightily  laud, 
heartily  love,  when  hence  he  goes 
from  life  in  the  body  forlorn  away. 

"Thus  made  their  mourning  the  men  of  Geatland, 
for  their  hero's  passing  his  hearth-companions : 
quoth  that  of  all  the  kings  of  earth, 
of  men  he  was  the  mildest  and  most  belov'd, 
to  his  kin  the  kindest,  keenest  for  praise." 


THE   OLD   ENGLISH    PERIOD  181 

In  this  poem  we  see  the  scenes  with  which  our  forefathers 
were  famiUar,  enter  into  their  hopes  and  fears,  and  reahze 
their  passion  for  honor  and  glory,  their  high  feehng  of  duty, 
and  the  stern  heroism  with  which  the}'  took  leave  of  life. 

Other  poems  which  give  us  insight  into  Anglo-Saxon  char- 
acter and  life  are  Widsith,  an  account  of  the  wanderings  of 
a  gleeman ;  The  Sea-farer,  written  in  the  spirit  of  Odysseus, 
though  the  northern  seas  differ  much  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean; and  the  Battle  of  Brunanhurh  and  the  Battle  of 
Maldon,  fine  expressions  of  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  race. 

(b)    THE  TRADITIONAL  LITERATURE  OF  THE  CELTS 

The  Celts  in  Britain.  —  The  people  who  inhabited  Eng- 
land —  or  Britain  as  it  was  then  called  —  before  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  conquest,  were  Celts,  that  branch  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean family  of  races  which  had  overspread  France,  Spain,  and 
"the  British  Islands  before  the  time  of  recorded  history  in 
western  Europe.  Csssar  had  fought  against  many  of  the 
Celtic  tribes  in  Gaul,  and  in  55  B.C.  had  crossed  over  into 
Britain  and  defeated  the  British  tribes  there.  Later  Britain 
had  become  a  Roman  province,  adopting  to  a  certain  extent 
the  civilization  of  Rome.  By  the  early  part  of  the  fifth 
century,  however,  the  Roman  legions  had  been  withdrawn 
from  Britain  to  protect  the  imperial  city  from  the  inroads  of 
the  Teutonic  tribes  of  northern  Europe,  leaving  the  Celts 
of  Britain  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The}'  resisted  the 
Anglo-Saxon  invaders  as  best  they  could ;  but  they  were 
little  by  little  driven  back  into  the  mountains  of  Wales  and 
Scotland,  and  some  of  them  passed  over  into  Armorica  on 
the  northwest  coast  of  France. 

Literature  of  the  Britons.  —  These  people,  as  well  as  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  had  their  traditional  literature  of  myth  and 
legend  and  heroic  story,  which  has  had  a  large  influence  in 


182  STUDIES    ly   LITERATURE 

the  development  of  English  literature.  These  traditions 
clustered  especially  about  the  name  of  Arthur,  supposed  to 
be  a  British  prince  who  gathered  the  scattered  bands  of  his 
people  about  him,  and  stemmed  for  a  time  the  tide  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  invasion,  defeating  the  invaders  in  twelve  great 
battles,  of  which  the  last  was  the  famous  battle  of  Mount 
Badon.  The  earlj^  form  of  these  stories  is  not  known  to  us. 
We  have  no  mention  of  them  until  about  the  ninth  century ; 
and,  so  far  as  we  know,  they  did  not  find  their  way  into 
manuscript  until  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  being  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation  by  word  of  mouth 
like  the  story  of  the  wrath  of  Achilles,  and  the  story  of  the 
exploits  of  Beonoilf.  They  need  not  be  discussed  in  this 
chapter,  for,  in  the  form  in  which  they  have  come  down  to 
us,  they  belong  to  a  time  later  than  the  Old  English  period. 
It  is  enough  to  say  here  that  they  reveal  a  people  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  Anglo-Saxon;  a  less  somber  people,  gayer 
and  more  fanciful,  more  eager,  more  excitable,  more  buoy- 
ant, more  appreciative  of  beauty,  richer  in  sentiment,  more 
keenly  sensitive  to  joy  and  sorrow ;  but  less  steady,  less  perse- 
vering, less  enduring,  less  likely  to  conquer,  to  achieve,  and  to 

prevail. 

(c)    CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE 

When  the  Anglo-Saxons  conquered  Britain,  they  were 
pagans,  and  they  remained  pagans  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years.     Then  Christianity  came. 

The  Coining  of  Christianity.  —  One  day  in  Rome  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  sixth  century,  a  monk  by  the  name  of 
Gregory,  seeing  in  the  slave  market  at  Rome  two  fair-haired 
slaves  from  Britain,  asked  to  what  race  they  belonged  and 
was  told  that  they  were  Angles.  Thinking  their  faces  more 
like  Angels  than  Angles,  he  determined  that  this  race  should 
know  Christianity;    and  later  when  he  became  Pope,  sent 


THE   OLD   ENGLISH    PERIOD  183 

St'.  Augustine  to  convert  tliom.  St.  Augustine  came  to 
southern  England  at  the  very  end  of  the  sixth  century,  estab- 
lished monasteries  and  schools,  and  instituted  Christian  civil- 
ization. About  the  same  time;  also  monks  came  from  Irc- 
and,  which  had  long  been  a  center  of  religion  and  learning, 
and  established  Irish  (Celtic)  monasteries  in  the  north. 
These  two  streams  of  C'hristian  infiuence  brought  to  the 
English  new  thoughts  and  feelings,  new  ideas  about  life,  and 
before  long  produced  a  literature  different  in  many  ways  from 
the  traditional  pagan  literature  of  the  earlier  Anglo-Saxons. 
Caedmon.  —  The  first  Christian  literature  grew  up  in  the 
north  during  the  seventh  century.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  northern  monasteries  was  at  Whitby  on  the 
eastern  coast,  northeast  of  the  city  of  York  (see  map). 
Here  lived  Csedmon,  a  poor  ignorant  man,  who,  if  the 
legend  about  him  is  true,  was  miraculously  led  to  the  writing 
of  poetry.  Bede,  who  was  born  about  the  time  of  the  death  of 
Csedmon,  tells  the  story  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History. 

"  There  was  in  the  monastery  of  this  abbess  a  certain  brother  es- 
pecially distinguished  by  the  grace  of  God,  since  he  was  wont  to 
make  poems  breathing  of  piety  and  religion.  Whatever  he  learned 
•of  Sacred  Scripture  by  the  mouth  of  interpreters,  he  in  a  little  time 
gave  forth  in  poetical  language  composed  with  the  greatest  sweetness 
and  depth  of  feeling,  in  English,  his  native  tongue ;  and  the  effect  of 
his  poems  was  ever  and  anon  to  incite  the  souls  of  many  to  despise 
the  world  and  long  for  the  heavenly  life.  Not  but  that  there  were 
others  after  him  among  the  people  of  the  Angles  who  sought  to  com- 
pose religious  poetry ;  but  none  there  was  who  could  equal  him. 
He  (Csedmon)  did  not  learn  the  art  of  song  from  men,  nor  through 
the  means  of  any  man ;  rather  did  he  receive  it  as  a  free  gift  from 
God.  Hence  it  came  to  pass  that  he  never  was  able  to  compose 
poetry  of  a  frivolous  or  idle  sort ;  none  but  such  as  pertain  to 
rehgion  suited  a  tongue  so  religious  as  his.  Living  always  the  life 
of  a  layman  until  well  advanced  in  years,  he  had  never  learned 


184  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

the  least  thing  about  poetry.  In  fact,  so  little  did  he  understand 
of  it  that  when  at  a  feast  it  would  be  ruled  that  every  one  present 
should,  for  the  entertainment  of  the  others,  sing  in  turn,  he  would, 
as  soon  as  he  saw  the  harp  coming  anywhere  near  liim,  jump  up 
from  the  table  in  the  midst  of  the  banqueting,  leave  the  place,  and 
make  the  best  of  his  way  home. 

"  This  he  had  done  at  a  certain  time,  and  leaving  the  house  where 
the  feast  was  in  progress,  had  gone  out  to  the  stable  where  the  care  of 
the  cattle  had  been  assigned  to  him  for  that  night.  There,  when  it 
was  time  to  go  to  sleep,  he  had  lain  down  for  that  purpose.  But 
while  he  slept  some  one  stood  by  him  in  a  dream,  greeted  him,  called 
him  by  name,  and  said,  'Csedmon,  sing  me  something.'  To  this 
he  replied,  'I  know  not  how  to  sing,  and  that  is  the  very  reason 
why  I  left  a  feast  and  came  here,  because  I  could  not  sing.'  But 
the  one  who  was  talking  with  him  answered,  'No  matter,  you  are 
to  sing  for  me.'  'Well,  then,'  said  he,  'what  is  it  that  I  must  sing ?' 
'Sing,'  said  the  other,  'the  beginning  of  created  things.'  At  this 
reply  he  immediately  began  to  sing  verses  in  praise  of  God  the 
Creator,  verses  that  he  had  never  heard,  and  whose  meaning  is  as 
follows :  '  Now  should  we  praise  the  Keeper  of  the  heavenly  king- 
dom, the  might  of  the  Creator  and  His  counsel,  the  works  of  the 
Father  of  glory ;  how  He,  though  God  eternal,  became  the  author 
of  all  marvels.  He,  the  almighty  Guardian  of  mankind,  first  created 
for  the  sons  of  men  heaven  as  a  roof,  and  afterwards  the  earth.' 
This  is  the  meaning,  but  not  the  precise  order,  of  the  words  which 
he  sang  in  his  sleep ;  for  no  songs,  however  well  they  may  be  com- 
posed, can  be  rendered  from  one  language  into  another  without 
loss  of  grace  and  dignity.  When  he  rose  from  sleep,  he  remembered 
all  that  he  had  sung  while  in  that  state,  and  shortly  after  added,  in 
the  same  strain,  many  more  words  of  a  hymn  befitting  the  majesty 
of  God. 

"  In  the  morning  he  went  to  the  steward  who  was  set  over  him, 
and  showed  him  what  gift  he  had  acquired.  Being  led  to  the 
abbess,  he  was  bidden  to  make  known  his  dream  and  repeat  his  poem 
to  the  many  learned  men  who  were  present,  that  they  all  might 
give  their  judgment  concerning  the  thing  which  he  related,  and 


THE    OLD   ENGLISH    PERIOD  185 

whence  it  was;    and  they  were  unanimously  of  the  opinion  that 
heavenly  grace  had  been  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  Lord.     They 
then  set  about  expounding  to  him  a  piece  of  sacred  history  or  teach- 
ing, bidding  him,  if  he  could,  to  turn  it  into  the  rhj^hm  of  poetry. 
This  he  undertook  to  do,  and  departed.      In  the  morning  he  returned 
and  delivered  the  passage  assigned  to  him,  con\-erted  into  an  ex- 
cellent poem.     The  abbess,  honoring  the  grace  of  God  as  displayed 
in  the  man,  shortly  afterward  instructed  him  to  forsake  the  condi- 
tion of  a  layman  and  take  upon  himself  the  vows  of  a  monk.     She 
thereupon  received  him  into  the  monastery  with  his  whole  family, 
and  made  him  one  of  the  company  of  the  brethren,  commanding  that 
he  .should  be  taught  the  whole  course  and  succession  of  Bil)lical 
history.     He,  in  turn,  calling  to  mind  what  he  was  able  to  learn  by 
the  hearing  of  the  ear,  and,  as  it  were,  Uke  a  clean  animal,  cheM\ing 
upon  it  as  a  cud,  transformed  it  all  into  most  agreeable  poetry; 
and,  by  echoing  it  back  in  a  more  harmonius  form,  made  his  teachers 
in  turn  hsten  to  him.     Thus  he  rehearsed  the  creation  of  the  world, 
the  origin  of  man,  and  all  the  story  of  Genesis ;   the  departure  of 
Israel  from  Egypt  and  their  entry  into  the  Promised  Land,  together 
with  many  other  histories  from  Holy  Writ ;   the  incarnation  of  our 
Lord,  his  passion,  resurrection,  and  ascension  into  heaven;    the 
coming  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles ;  more- 
over, he  made  many  poems  about  the  terror  of  the  future  judgment, 
the  awfulness  of  the  pains  of  hell,  and  the  joy  of  the  heavenly  king- 
dom, besides  a  great  number  about  the  mercies  and  judgments  of 
God.     In  all  these  he  exerted  himself  to  allure  men  from  the  love 
of  wickedness,  and  to  impel  them  to  the  love  and  practice  of  right- 
eous living ;   for  he  was  a  very  devout  man,  humbly  submissive  to 
the  monastic  rule,  but  full  of  consuming  zeal  against  those  who  were 
disposed  to  act  otherwise. 

"  Hence  it  came  to  pass  that  he  ended  his  life  vath  a  fair  death. 
For  when  the  hour  of  his  departure  di-ow  nigh,  he  was  afflicted  for 
the  space  of  a  fortnight  with  a  bodily  weakness  which  seemed  to 
prepare  the  way;  yet  it  was  so  far  from  severe  that  he  was  able 
during  the  whole  of  that  time  to  walk  about  and  converse.  Near 
at  hand  there  was  a  cottage,  to  which  those  who  were  sick  and 


186  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

appeared  nigh  unto  death  were  usually  taken.  At  the  approach  of 
evening  on  the  same  night  when  he  was  to  leave  the  world,  he 
desired  his  attendant  to  make  ready  a  place  there  for  him  to  take 
his  rest.  The  attendant  did  so,  though  he  could  not  help  wondering 
at  the  request,  since  he  did  not  seem  the  least  like  a  person  about  to 
die.  When  he  was  placed  in  the  infirmary,  he  was  somehow  full  of 
good  humor,  and  kept  talking  and  joking  with  those  who  had 
already  been  brought  there.  Some  time  after  midnight  he  asked 
whether  they  had  the  Eucharist  at  hand.  'What  do  you  need  of 
the  Eucharist  ? '  they  answered,  'you  aren't  going  to  die  yet,  for  you 
are  just  as  full  of  fun  in  talking  with  us  as  if  nothing  were  the  matter 
with  you.'  'Never  mind,'  said  he,  'bring  me  the  Eucharist.' 
Taking  it  in  his  hand,  he  asked,  '  Are  you  all  at  peace  with  me,  and 
free  from  any  grudge  or  ill  \vill?'  'Yes,'  they  all  responded,  'we 
are  perfectly  at  peace  with  you,  and  cherish  no  grievance  whatever.' 
'But  are  you,'  said  they,  'entirely  at  peace  with  us?'  'Yes,  my 
dear  children,'  he  answered  without  hesitation,  'I  am  at  peace  with 
aU  the  servants  of  God.'  And  thus  sajdng,  he  made  ready  for  his 
entrance  into  the  other  hfe  by  partaking  of  the  heavenly  journey- 
bread.  Not  long  after  he  inquired,  'How  near  is  it  to  the  hour 
when  the  brethren  are  wakened  for  lauds?'  'But  a  httle  while,' 
was  the  reply.  'Well  then,'  said  he,  'let  us  wait  for  that  hour,'  and, 
making  o\'er  himself  the  sign  of  the  cross,  he  laid  his  head  on  the 
pillow,  and  falling  into  a  light  slumber,  ended  his  life  in  silence. 
And  so  it  came  to  pass  that,  as  he  had  served  the  Lord  in 
simplicity  and  purity  of  mind,  and  with  serene  attachment  and 
loyalty,  so  by  a  serene  death  he  left  the  world,  and  went  to 
look  upon  His  face.  And  meet  in  truth  it  was  that  the 
tongue  which  had  indited  so  many  helpful  words  in  praise 
of  the  Creator,  should  frame  its  very  last  words  in  His  praise, 
while  in  the  act  of  signing  himself  ^vith  the  cross  and  of  commend- 
ing his  spirit  into  His  hands.  And  that  he  foresaw  his  death  is 
apparent  from  what  has  here  been  related."  ^ 

The  long  epic  poem  which  has  come  down  to  us  associated 

1  Cook  and  Tinker,  Translations  from  Old  English  Poetry,  pp.  180-183. 


THE   OLD   ENGLISH    PERIOD  187 

with  the  name  of  Cadmon  consists  of  a  paraphrase  of 
Genesis,  Exodus,  and  a  part  of  Daniel.  It  was  not,  however, 
all  written  by  Csedmon ;  and  no  one  knows  exactly  what 
parts  are  his.  The  tone  is  almost  as  much  pagan  as  Chris- 
tian. Armies  and  battles  are  described  with  enthusiasm. 
The  destruction  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  Red  Sea  is  sung  with 
savage  zest.  The  poem  represents  a  civilization  nominally 
Christian,  but  still  permeated  with  pagan  thought  and 
feeling. 

Cynewulf  was  another  important  poet  who  wrote  in  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Almost  nothing  is  known  of  his  life.  We  are  not 
sure  how  many  of  the  poems  attributed  to  him  were  really 
wTitten  by  him ;  but  some  of  them  certainly  were,  since  he 
worked  his  name  into  the  text  in  a  kind  of  cipher,  using  runes 
for  the  purpose.^ 

"  Elene  "  and  "  Christ."  —  The  most  important  of  Cyne- 
wTilf's  undoulited  poems  are  Elene  and  Christ.  Elene  re- 
lates how  Constantine,  on  the  eve  of  battle,  had  a  vision  of 
the  cross,  and  afterwards  sent  his  mother,  Elene,  to  search 
for  the  original  cross  in  Jerusalem.  The  Christ  tells  the  story 
of  the  nativity  of  Christ,  his  ascension,  and  the  last  judgment. 
Like  most  of  the  medieval  writers  and  painters,  Cynewulf 
loved  to  depict  the  tortures  of  the  wicked  and  the  joys  of 
the  redeemed.  The  Christ,  however,  is  prevailingly  didactic, 
though  rising  at  times  to  the  level  of  genuine  reflective  poetry. 
The  following  is  a  typical  passage.  It  compares  life  to  a 
journey  on  the  sea. 

"Now  'tis  most  like  as  if  we  fare  in  .ships 
On  the  ocean's  flood,  over  the  water  cold, 
Driving  our  vessels  through  the  spacious  seas 
With  horses  of  the  deep.     A  perilous  way  is  this 
Of  boundless  waves,  and  there  are  stormy  seas 

'  See  Cook  and  Tinker,  Translations  from  Old  English  Poetry,  p.  83  f. 


188  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

On  which  we  toss  here  in  this  (reehng)  world 
O'er  the  deep  paths.     Ours  was  a  sorry  phght 
Until  at  last  we  sailed  unto  the  land, 
Over  the  troubled  main,  Help  came  to  us 
That  brought  us  to  the  haven  of  salvation, 
God's  Spirit-Son,  and  granted  grace  to  us 
That  we  might  know  e'en  from  the  vessel's  deck 
Where  we  must  bind  with  anchorage  secure 
Our  ocean  steeds,  our  stallions  of  the  waves." 

Bede's  "Ecclesiastical  History."  —  Another  writer  from 
the  north  of  England  was  the  Venerable  Bede,  who  lived  at 
Jarrow  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne.  (See  map.)  He  was  a 
scholar,  considering  the  time  in  which  he  lived;  and  al- 
though he  made  many  mistakes,  we  owe  to  him  most  of  our 
knowledge  of  English  history  from  the  landing  of  Caesar 
down  to  the  year  731.  His  principal  work  is  The  Ecclesi- 
astical History  of  the  English  People,  written  in  Latin,  as 
most  of  his  other  works  were.  He  is  said  to  have  made 
an  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  but  the 
manuscript  is  unfortunately  lost.  His  account  of  Caedmon 
shows  his  interesting  style. 

The  Coming  of  the  Danes.  —  Near  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  the  Danes  from  the  Baltic  began  to  make  inroads  into 
northern  England ;  and  by  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century 
the  learning  and  civilization  of  Northumbria  had  been  prac- 
tically swept  away.  Monasteries  were  demolished,  teachers 
and  scholars  slain,  and  libraries  utterly  destroyed.  The 
Northumbrian  literature  is  preserved  only  in  West  Saxon 
transcripts,  made,  probably,  at  the  court  of  King  Alfred  the 
Great  (848-901). 

Alfred  the  Great,  who  succeeded  for  a  time  in  checking 
the  Danes  in  their  progress  to  the  south,  maintained  at  his 
court  in  Wessex  a  center  of  literature  and  scholarship.     He 


THE   OLD   ENGLISH    PERIOD  189 

gathered  learned  men  about  him,  estahhshed  a  court  sehool, 
and  caused  many  foreign  manuscripts  to  be  translated  into 
Anglo-Saxon.  He  was  himself  a  scholar  and  a  translator. 
He  gave  to  his  people  Anglo-Saxon  versions  of  a  manual  of 
history  and  geography  by  Orosius,  the  Consolations  of  Phi- 
losophy by  Boethius,  and  the  Pastoral  Care  by  Gregory.  He 
translated  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History,  and,  above  all, 
developed  the  famous  Saxon  Chronicle,  the  earliest  history 
of  England  in  the  language  of  the  people.  Extracts  from 
the  Chronicle  are  accessible  in  Manly's  English  Prose,  and  in 
Cook  and  Tinker's  Translations  from  Old  English  Prose. 
Much  of  it,  especially  the  account  of  Alfred's  own  reign,  is 
literature  as  well  as  history.  Alfred  has  fittingly  been  called 
the  father  of  English  prose.       « 

After  the  death  of  Alfred  (901  a.d.)  literature  declined. 
There  was  no  national  Hfe,  and  consequently  no  national 
literature.  Monks  in  the  monasteries  wrote  homilies,  and 
the  Saxon  Chronicle  was  continued ;  but  the  Anglo-Saxons 
had  produced  the  best  that  was  in  them,  and  were  in  need  of 
new  blood  and  a  new  national  impulse.  These  came  with 
the  Norman  Conquest  in  1066. 

Readings  in  Anglo-Saxon  Literature 

1.  Beowulf:  Translated  by  Gummere  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany), and  by  Child  in  the  Riverside  Literature  Series  (Houghton, 
Mifflin,  and  Company). 

2.  Miscellaneous  selections  translated  by  Cook  and  Tinker  in 
Translations  from  Old  English  Poetry  and  Old  English  Prose  (Ginn 
and  Company). 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE   MIDDLE   ENGLISH   PERIOD 

(a)    THE  ROMANCE  AND   THE   BALLAD 

The  Norman  Invasion.  —  In  1066  William  of  Normandy 
invaded  England,  won  the  battle  of  Hastings  against  Harold, 
the  last  of  the  Saxon  kings,  and  set  up  in  England  a  Norman 
kingdom.  The  Normans,  as  their  name  suggests,  came 
originally  from  the  north,  ajid  were  allied  by  blood  to  the 
Danes  who  had  devastated  Northumbria  and  destroyed  the 
Saxon  civilization  there.  The  Normans  had  settled  in 
Northern  France,  had  intermarried  with  the  French,  and 
had  adopted  the  French  language  and  many  of  the  French 
customs  and  ideas  of  life.  The  result  was  a  race  which  pos- 
sessed the  vigor  and  perseverance  of  the  Teutons,  and  also 
the  gayety,  imagination,  and  sensitiveness  of  the  French.  It 
was  well  that  such  a  race  should  come  into  England. 

The  Blending  of  the  Races.  —  For  many  years  the  Normans 
and  Saxons  lived  side  by  side  in  England  as  conquerors  and 
conquered  without  much  intermingling;  but  gradually  the 
same  thing  happened  which  had  happened  when  the  Normans 
settled  in  France.  The  two  races  united.  Norman  and 
Saxon  were  merged  to  form  the  Englishman.  The  influence 
of  the  Celt  and  the  Dane  was  not  insignificant,  but  the  com- 
posite Englishman  was  prevailingly  Saxon  and  Norman.  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  Ivanhoe  presents  a  picture  of  English  life  dur- 
ing the  three  centuries  after  the  conquest,  when  the  races 
were  distinct  and  the  language  in  hopeless  confusion.     Scott 

190 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  191 

has  brought  together  (see  Part  I,  p.  18  f.),  in  the  reign  of  Rich- 
ard the  Lion-hearted,  race  antagonism  which  belonged  to  a 
century  previous,  and  ideas  of  chivahy  which  belonged  to 
a  century  or  two  later,  so  that  his  history  is  not  accurate  as 
a  picture  of  the  time  of  Richard ;  but,  if  we  wish  to  think  of 
the  three  centuries  together,  Ivanhoc  gives  us  a  fairly  ade- 
quate idea  of  life  in  this  period  of  transition.  That  life  is 
reflected  also  in  the  Middle  English  literature,  especially 
in  the  romances  and  ballads  which  furnished  the  most  impor- 
tant literature  between  the  Norman  Conquest  and  the  time 
of  Chaucer. 

Beginning  of  Modern  English.  —  Although  the  hostility 
between  the  races  soon  died  out,  it  was  longer  before  the 
languages  blended  into  modern  English.  There  were  three 
languages  in  England  immediately  after  the  conquest : 
Latin,  the  language  of  learning ;  P'rench,  the  language  of 
the  court  and  of  polite  society ;  and  Saxon,  the  language  of 
the  common  people.  Moreover,  there  were  three  dialects  of 
Saxon:  the  Northumbrian,  the  Midland,  and  the  Southern, 
about  as  different  as  the  Scotch  of  Burns  and  the  Enghsh  of 
Addison.  It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Chaucer  (fourteenth 
century)  that  the  Midland  dialect  finally  triumphed  and 
became  the  basis  of  modern  English,  absorbing  many  north- 
ern and  southern  forms,  and  adding  to  its  vocabulary  a 
large  number  of  Norman-French  words. ^ 

(1)  Romances 

Arthurian  Romance.  —  The  Normans  brought  a  new  element 
into  English  literature.  Preeminently  interested  in  chivalry 
and  romance,  they  possessed  many  stories  of  knightly  prowess 
and  romantic  adventure,  brilliant  in  description,  extrava- 
gant in  action,   abounding  in  superstition.     Among  these 

'  Cf.  Ivanhoe,  Chapter  I,  for  the  relation  of  Norman-French  and  Saxon. 


192  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

were  stories  of  King  Arthur  and  his  knights.  It  will  be  re- 
membered (see  p.  181)  that  when  the  Britons  were  driven 
back  into  the  fastnesses  of  Wales  and  the  North,  many  of 
them  passed  over  into  Brittany  in  France,  carrying  with 
them  traditions  of  their  famous  prince.  These  stories  were 
developed  in  Brittany  as  well  as  in  England  by  the  addition 
of  much  popular  folk-lore,  myth,  and  legend,  were  further 
enlarged  by  the  French,  and,  in  the  end,  became  popular 
all  over  Europe,  extending  even  into  Germany  and  Italy. 
Some  of  the  earliest  and  best  of  the  Arthur  stories  are  in 
Norman-French.  When  the  Normans  came  to  England,  the 
continental  stream  and  the  native  Welsh  stream  of  the 
Arthurian  story  came  together  and  produced  a  variety  of 
literature  in  Latin,  French,  and  English. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  History.  —  The  first  important 
book  to  treat  the  Arthurian  stories  was  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth's History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain,  written  in  Latin 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  Geoffrey  pre- 
tended that  his  book  was  sober  history,  but  he  seems  to  have 
cared  little  for  historic  facts.  Indeed  he  has  been  called 
"  the  champion  liar  of  the  twelfth  century."  His  book  is 
full  of  events  which  never  could  have  happened  —  pure  ro- 
mance. He  was  in  a  position  to  know  both  Welsh  and  Breton 
traditions,  for  he  belonged  to  a  Welsh  monastery  which  had 
intimate  connections  with  the  Bretons  on  the  continent. 
The  truth  seems  to  be  that  he  brought  together  the  two 
masses  of  tradition  and  foisted  them  upon  the  public  as  gen- 
uine history.  To  be  sure,  he  claimed  to  be  translating  an 
old  manuscript,  but  no  trace  of  such  a  manuscript  has  ever 
been  found.  It  was  the  fashion  to  have  a  source  upon  which 
to  base  a  book,  so  Geoffrey  simply  invented  a  book  for  the 
purpose.  Although,  then,  Geoffrey's  book  was  not  written 
in  the  form  of  a  romance,  it  is  genuine  romance  material 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  193 

and  the  real  progenitor  of  the  great  mass  of  subsequent 
Arthurian  literature,  including  Malory's  Morte  d' Arthur 
and  Tennyson's  hbjlh  of  the  King. 

Layamon's  "  Brut."  ^— Geoffrey's  book  was  immediately 
translated  into  French  by  Wace  of  Jersey,  who  added  much 
from  oral  tradition  which  Geoffrey  seems  not  to  have  known. 
Wace's  book,  in  turn,  was  translated  into  English  and  much 
enlarged  about  the  year  1200  by  a  monk  named  Layamon. 
Layamon  called  his  book  Brut.  It  tells  of  the  founding  of 
the  British  nation  by  Brutus,  a  great  grandson  of  ^Eneas, 
and  then  traces  the  course  of  British  history  down  to  the 
author's  own  time.  Nearly  a  third  of  the  book  is  taken  up 
with  the  achievements  of  Arthur  and  his  knights,  Laya- 
mon was  not  content  merely  to  translate  Wace  and  Geoffrey 
and  Bede,  his  acknowledged  authorities  ;  he  himself  lived  on 
the  Severn  River  close  to  the  Welsh  border,  where  he  could 
not  fail  to  become  familiar  with  Celtic  tradition;  and  this 
tradition  he  did  not  scruple  to  use.  He  adds,  for  instance, 
the  story  of  the  founding  of  the  Round  Table  and  the  ac- 
count of  the  fays  who  attended  Arthur's  l)irth  and,  after  his 
last  battle,  carried  him  to  Avalon  to  be  healed  of  his  wounds. 

The  Language  of  Layamon.  —  Layamon's  book  is  also 
important  because  it  was  the  first  romance  written  for 
Englishmen  in  the  English  language.  After  the  Norman 
Conquest,  the  English  vernacular  had  ceased  to  be  a  liter- 
ary tongue.  Books  were  all  written  in  Latin  or  French, 
except  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  which  was  continued 
down  to  the  year  1154.  Layamon  favored  the  popular 
language  and  employed  it  again  for  literary  purposes.  It 
had  become  much  changed,  however,  in  the  century  and  a 
half  since  the  conquest,  resembling  more  the  English  of 
Chaucer  than  the  English  of  Alfred  and  Caedmon. 

The  Holy  Grail.  —  During  the  three  centuries  following 
o 


194  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

the  Norman  Conquest  Arthurian  romance  was  in  a  highly 
flourishing  condition.  At  the  beginning,  the  stories  were 
purely  pagan,  but  they  early  took  on  religious  aspects,  as 
the  story  of  the  Holy  Grail  so  interestingly  shows.  This 
story  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  originally  a  pagan 
myth  about  vegetation,  a  sacrifice  to  propitiate  the  god  of 
fertility  and  growth,  and  thus  to  bring  in  the  summer  of  joy 
and  fruitfulness  after  the  sadness  and  death  of  winter. 
Later  the  sacrificial  vessel  seems  to  have  become  confused 
with  the  cup  from  which  Jesus  drank  at  the  last  supper,  and 
the  sacrificial  spear  to  have  become  the  spear  of  Longinus, 
which  pierced  the  side  of  Christ  on  the  cross.  The  grail 
thus  became  Christian,  representing  the  medieval  idea  of 
purity,  and  visible  only  to  the  pure  in  heart  and  the  righteous. 
"  Gawayneand  the  GreenKnight." — Of  the  many  romances 
which  appeared  in  English  during  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries  the  best,  by  almost  universal  consent,  is 
Gawayne  and  the  Green  Knight.  The  following  is  the  sub- 
stance of  the  story : 

"On  New  Year's  day,  while  Arthur  and  his  knights  are  keeping 
the  Yuletide  feast  at  Camelot,  a  gigantic  knight  in  green  enters 
the  banquet  hall  on  horseback  and  challenges  the  bravest  knight 
to  present  an  exchange  of  blows ;  that  is,  he  will  expose  his  neck  to 
a  blow  of  his  own  big  battle-ax,  if  any  knight  will  agree  to  abide  a 
blow  in  return.  After  some  natural  consternation  and  a  fine  speech 
by  Arthur,  Gawain  accepts  the  challenge,  takes  the  battle-ax,  and 
with  one  blow  sends  the  giant's  head  rolling  through  the  hall.  The 
Green  Knight,  who  is  evidently  a  terrible  magician,  picks  up  his 
head  and  mounts  his  horse.  He  holds  out  his  head  and  the  ghastly 
hps  speak,  warning  Gawain  to  be  faithful  to  his  promise  and  to 
seek  through  the  world  till  he  finds  the  Green  Chapel.  There,  on 
next  New  Year's  day,  the  Green  Knight  will  meet  him  and  return 
the  blow. 

"The  second  canto  of  the  poem  describes  Gawain's  long  journey 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  195 

through  tlie  wilderness  on  his  steed  Gringolet,  and  his  adven- 
tures with  storm  and  cold,  with  wild  beasts  and  monsters,  as  he 
seeks  in  vain  for  the  Green  Chapel.  On  Christmas  eve,  in  the  midst 
of  a  vast  forest,  he  offers  a  prayer  to  'Mary,  mildest  mother  so  dear, ' 
and  is  rewarded  by  sight  of  a  green  castle.  He  enters  and  is  royally 
entertained  by  the  host,  an  aged  hero,  and  by  his  wife,  who  is  the 
most  beautiful  woman  the  knight  ever  beheld.  Gawain  learns 
that  he  is  at  last  near  the  Green  Chapel,  and  settles  down  for  a 
little  comfort  after  his  long  quest. 

"The  next  canto  shows  the  Ufe  in  the  castle,  and  describes  a 
curious  compact  between  the  host,  who  goes  hmiting  daily,  and  the 
knight,  who  remains  in  the  castle  to  entertain  the  young  wife. 
The  compact  is,  that  at  night  each  man  shall  give  the  other  whatever 
good  thing  he  obtains  during  the  day.  While  the  host  is  hunting, 
the  3'oung  woman  tries  in  vain  to  induce  Gawain  to  make  love  to  her, 
and  ends  bj'  giving  liim  a  kiss.  When  the  host  returns  and  gives 
his  guest  the  game  he  has  killed,  Gawain  returns  the  kiss.  On  the 
third  day,  her  temptations  ha\dng  twice  failed,  the  lady  offers 
Gawain  a  ring,  which  he  refuses ;  but  when  she  offers  a  magic  green 
girdle  that  ^nll  preserve  the  wearer  from  death,  Gawain,  who  re- 
members the  giant's  ax  so  soon  to  fall  on  Ms  neck,  accepts  the  girdle 
as  a  'jewel  for  the  jeopardy'  and  promises  the  lady  to  keep  the  gift 
secret.  Here,  then,  are  two  conflicting  compacts.  When  the  host 
returns  and  offers  his  game,  Gawain  returns  the  kiss,  but  says  nothing 
of  the  green  girdle. 

"The  last  canto  brings  our  knight  to  the  Green  Chapel,  after  he 
is  repeatedly  warned  to  turn  back  in  the  face  of  certain  death.  The 
Chapel  is  a  terrible  place  in  the  midst  of  desolation  ;  and  as  Gawain 
approaches  he  hears  a  terrifjang  sound,  the  grating  of  steel  on  stone, 
where  the  giant  is  sharpening  a  new  battle-ax.  The  Green  Kiiight 
appears,  and  Gawain,  true  to  his  compact,  offers  his  neck  for  the 
blow.  Twice  the  ax  s\\ings  harmlessly ;  the  third  time  it  falls  on 
his  shoulder  and  womids  him.  Whereupon  Gawain  jumps  for 
his  armor,  draws  his  sword,  and  warns  the  giant  that  the  compact 
calls  for  only  one  blow,  and  that,  if  another  is  offered,  he  will  de- 
fend himself. 


196  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

"Then  the  Green  Knight  explains  things.  He  is  lord  of  the 
castle  where  Gawain  has  been  entertained  for  days  past.  The 
first  two  swings  of  the  ax  were  harmless,  because  Gawain  had  been 
true  to  his  compact  and  twice  returned  the  kiss.  The  last  blow 
had  wounded  him,  because  he  concealed  the  gift  of  the  green  girdle, 
wliich  belongs  to  the  Green  Knight  and  was  woven  by  his  wife. 
Moreover,  the  whole  thing  has  been  arranged  by  Morgain  the  fay- 
woman  (an  enemy  of  Queen  Guinevere,  who  appears  often  in  the 
Arthurian  romances).  Full  of  shame,  Gawain  throws  back  the  gift 
and  is  ready  to  atone  for  his  deception ;  but  the  Green  Knight  thinks 
he  has  already  atoned,  and  presents  the  green  girdle  as  a  free  gift. 
Gawain  returns  to  Arthur's  court,  tells  the  whole  story  frankly,  and 
ever  after  that  the  knights  of  the  Round  Table  wear  a  green  girdle 
in  his  honor."  ^ 

The  Arthurian  Romances  as  a  whole  did  not  reach  their 
best  form  until  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  At 
that  time  Thomas  Malory,  an  English  knight,  selected  all 
that  was  best  in  the  old  English  and  French  romances,  and 
retold  it  in  quaint  and  charming  English  prose.  His  book, 
Morte  d' Arthur,  is  the  original  of  most  of  the  modern  ver- 
sions of  the  Arthur  stories.  It  has  inspired  the  great  writers 
of  England  in  nearly  every  generation  since  its  appearance. 
There  are  many  references  to  the  stories  in  Shakespeare. 
Spenser  made  Arthur  the  connecting  link  between  the  parts 
of  The  Faerie  Queene.  Milton  considered  long  whether  he 
should  not  make  the  Arthurian  material,  instead  of  the  fall 
of  man,  the  subject  of  his  great  epic.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  Arnold,  Tennyson,  Morris,  and  Swinburne  all  wrote 
Arthurian  stories.  Perhaps  no  other  literary  material  has 
played  so  large  apart  in  English  literature  as  these  old 
romances. 

There  were  other  famous  cycles  of  Romance,  notably  the 

'  Long,  English  Literature,  pp.  57-58. 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  197 

stories  of  Troy,  the  stories  of  Alexander,  and  the  stories  of 
Charlemagne,  but  none  of  them  are  so  important  in  English 
literature  as  the  native  stories  about  Arthur, 

(2)  Ballads 

Ballad  Literature.  —  The  romances  of  chivalry,  although 
based  upon  popular  tradition,  were,  for  the  most  part,  put 
into  literary  form  by  the  Normans,  and  really  represent  the 
courtly  class.  The  common  people  had  a  popular  literature 
all  their  own.  They  composed  and  sang  the  traditional 
ballads,  passing  them  on  from  generation  to  generation  by 
word  of  mouth.  The  origin  of  ballad  making  is  far  back  in 
the  primitive  period  of  civilization,  when  the  unity  of  tribe 
or  nation  was  strong,  and  before  the  people  had  become  di- 
vided into  educated  and  uneducated  classes.  When  these 
rude  people  met  upon  the  green  for  game  and  dance  and  song, 
a  leader  would  begin  to  chant  a  bit  of  heroic  story,  some 
achievement,  perhaps,  of  a  member  of  the  tribe.  Imme- 
diately the  entire  company  would  take  it  up,  developing  the 
story  in  song,  and  acting  out  the  events  in  dramatic  dance. 
In  a  certain  sense  the  ballad  was  the  production  of  the  throng 
rather  than  of  an  individual  artist.  No  one  claimed  the 
authorship.  It  represented  the  ideas  of  no  particular  indi- 
vidual. It  was  altogether  spontaneous,  objective,  direct, 
—  a  pure  story  in  its  simplest  form,  without  any  marks  of 
reflection  and  learning.  The  ballad  was  sung  by  everybody, 
changed  at  will,  and  transmitted  to  the  next  generation  by 
word  of  mouth.  Eventually  it  either  passed  out  of  remem- 
brance or  was  caught  by  some  maker  of  books  and  written 
down. 

Robin  Hood.  —  This  "  merry  art  of  ballad  making " 
in  the  old  traditional  manner  is  practically  extinct,  though 
it  is  said  that  the  old  English  ballads  survive  by  tradition 


198  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

among  the  southern  mountaineers,  and  ballads  of  a  similar 
nature  have  been  collected  among  the  cowboys  of  the  fron- 
tier. (See  Lomax,  John  A  :  Coivboy  Songs  and  Other  Frontier 
Ballads.)  In  the  years  following  the  Norman  Conquest, 
however,  the  custom  was  in  vigorous  survival  in  England. 
The  most  important  ballads  have  to  do  with  the  story  of 
Robin  Hood,  of  which  Sir  Walter  Scott  made  much  use  in 
Ivanhoe.  Robin  Hood  is  an  idealized  outlaw ;  a  hero  of  the 
common  people,  brave  and  honest,  hating  all  forms  of 
injustice ;  an  enemy  of  the  rich  and  powerful ;  a  friend  of  the 
poor,  and  particularly  of  unfortunate  knights.  He  em- 
bodies the  protest  against  the  oppression  of  church  and 
state. 

A  Gest  of  Robin  Hode  is  one  of  the  oldest  as  well  as  one  of 
the  best  of  the  Robin  Hood  ballads.  "  The  whole  poem," 
says  Professor  Child,  "  may  have  been  put  together  as  early 
as  1400  or  before."  It  is,  however,  based  on  still  older 
ballads.  There  are  at  least  three  distinct  episodes  :  Robin's 
experiences  with  the  Knight,  with  the  Sheriff,  and  with  the 
King.  Perhaps  these  were  originally  separate  ballads. 
The  story  is  very  simple  and  direct,  almost  bald.  Just  the 
necessary  facts  are  told,  nothing  more.  The  story  moves, 
too,  with  great  rapidity.  When,  for  instance,  the  king  has 
come  to  the  forest  in  disguise  and  has  defeated  Robin  in  an 
archery  contest,  in  which  the  penalty  of  defeat  is  a  blow 
from  the  victor,  we  have  the  following  simple  scene : 

"Then  bespake  good  Gylberte, 
And  thus  he  gan  say ; 
'Mayster,'  he  sayd,  'your  takyll  is  lost, 
Stande  forth  and  take  your  pay.' 

"  'If  it  be  so,'  say'd  Robyn, 
'That  may  no  better  be,  . 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  199 

Syr  Abbot,  I  delyver  the  myn  arowe, 
I  pray  the,  syr,  serve  thou  me.' 

'"It  falleth  not  for  myn  ordre,'  sayd  our  kynge, 
'  Robyn,  by  thy  leve, 
For  to  smyte  no  good  yeman, 
For  doute  I  sholde  hym  greve.' 

"  'Smyte  on  boldely,'  sayd  Robyn, 
'  I  give  the  large  leve  : ' 
Anone  our  kynge,  with  that  worde, 
He  folde  up  his  sieve. 

And  sych  a  buffet  he  gave  Robyn, 

To  grounde  he  yede  full  nere : 
*I  make  myn  avowe  to  God,'  sayd  Robyn, 

'Thou  arte  a  stalworthe  frere. 

"  'There  is  pith  in  thyn  arme,'  sayd  Robyn, 
'  I  trowe  thou  canst  well  shete  ' ; 
Thus  our  kynge  and  Robin  Hode. 
Togeder  gan  they  mete." 

Another  famous  ballad,  somewhat  later  in  date,  is  Chevy- 
Chace,  a  story  of  a  hunt  on  the  Scottish  border  ending  in  a 
clash  of  arms  between  the  famous  nobles  Percy  and  Douglas. 
Another  is  Tarn  Lin,  a  supernatural  ballad  of  transformation, 
in  subject  matter  not  unlike  the  "  Ballad  of  Alice  Brand  " 
in  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  but  of  course  composed  in  a  more 
primitive  and,  therefore,  more  genuinely  ballad  style. 

"  ^ir  Patrick  Spence." — Of  all  the  ballads  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  however,  none  perhaps  surpasses  the  strong  and 
graphic  ballad  of  Sir  Patrick  Spence.  It  is  short  enough  for 
reproduction  here. 

1.        "  The  king  sits  in  Dumferling  toune, 
Drinking  the  blude-reid  wine  : 


200  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

'  0  whar  \vi\\  I  get  guid  sailor, 
To  sail  this  schip  of  mine  ? ' 

2.  "  Up  and  spak  an  eldern  knicht, 

Sat  at  the  kings  richt  kne : 
'  Sir  Patrick  Spence  is  the  best  sailor, 
That  sails  upon  the  se.' 

3.  "  The  king  has  written  a  braid  letter, 

And  signed  it  wi  his  hand, 
And  sent  it  to  Sir  Patrick  Spence, 
Was  walking  on  the  sand. 

4.  "  The  first  hne  that  Sir  Patrick  red, 

A  loud  lauch  lauched  he  ; 
The  next  line  that  Sir  Patrick  red. 
The  teir  blinded  his  ee. 

5.  "  '0  wha  is  this  has  don  this  deid, 

This  ill  deid  don  to  me, 
To  send  me  out  this  time  o'  the  yeir. 
To  sail  upon  the  se! 

6.  "  '  Mak  hast,  mak  haste,  uiy  mirry  men  alL 

Our  guid  schip  sails  the  morne  :' 
'0  say  no  sae,  my  master  deir, 
For  I  feir  a  deadlie  storme. 

7.  "  'Late  late  yestreen  I  saw  the  new  moone, 

Wi  the  auld  moone  in  hir  arme. 
And  I  feir,  I  feir,  my  deir  master. 
That  we  will  cum  to  harme.' 

8.  "  0  our  Scots  nobles  wer  richt  laith 

To  weet  their  cork-heild  schoone ; 
Bot  lang  owre  a'  the  play  wer  plaj^d, 
Thair  hats  they  swam  aboone. 

9.  "0  lang,  lang  may  their  ladies  sit, 

Wi  thair  fans  into  their  hand, 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  201 

Or  eir  they  se  Sir  Patiick  Spence 
Cum  siiiling  to  the  land. 

10.  "  O  lang,  lang  may  the  ladies  stand, 

Wi  thair  gold  kcms  in  their  hair, 
Waiting  for  thair  ain  deir  lords. 
For  they'll  se  thame  na  mair. 

11.  "  Haf  owre,  haf  owre  to  Aberdour, 

It's  fiftie  fadom  deip, 
And  thair  lies  guid  Sir  Patrick  Spence, 
Wi  the  Scots  lords  at  his  feit." 

Here  is  story  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms.  There  is  noth- 
ing superfluous,  for  only  the  most  significant  facts  are  told. 
Much  must  be  read  between  the  lines,  yet  to  read  between 
the  lines  is  easy,  and  the  facts  are  unusually  direct  and 
graphic. 

Outside  of  ballads  and  romances,  little  need  be  said  of  the 

literature  between  the  Norman  Conquest  and  the  time  of 

Chaucer.     Two  productions  only  are  of  special  interest.     The 

Pearl  and  Ancren  Riwle.     The  Pearl  is  an  intensely  human 

picture  of  a  father's  grief  over  the  loss  of  his  little  daughter  ; 

The  Ancren  Riwle,  advice  for  the  guidance  of  anchoresses, 

is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pieces  of  early  English  prose. 

For  further  information  on  these  and  other  productions  of  the 

period,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  standard  histories  of 

literature. 

(b)    THE   AGE   OF   CHAUCER 

The  Rise  of  the  People.  —  The  fourteenth  century  is  re- 
markable for  the  rising  importance  of  the  common  people. 
The  Hundred  Years  War  between  France  and  England, 
which  broke  out  early  in  the  century,  not  only  loosened  the 
Normans'  political  ties  with  France,  but  also  emphasized 
their  dependence  upon  the  English  peasantry.     These  peas- 


202  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

ants  made  valuable  soldiers.  The  success  of  Edward  III 
and  the  Black  Prince  was  largely  due,  not  to  knights  in 
armor,  but  to  English  yeomen,  who  fought  with  the  bow. 
Moreover,  the  scourge  of  the  Black  Death  destroyed  half 
of  the  people  of  the  country,  and  so  made  labor  rare  and 
valuable.  The  common  man  began  to  realize  his  importance 
in  the  state,  and  to  demand  a  larger  freedom  and  clearer 
rights  and  privileges.  In  1381  under  the  leadership  of  Wat 
Tyler,  Jack  Straw,  and  John  Balle,  the  peasants  marched  to 
London,  took  possession  of  the  city,  and  made  their  demands 
upon  King  Richard  II.  Their  express  demands  were  not 
granted,  but  they  had  demonstrated  their  power,  and  had 
become  conscious  of  their  wrongs  and  needs.  The  masses 
of  the  English  people  were  beginning  to  think,  and  hence- 
forth had  to  be  reckoned  with. 

Langland's  "  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman."  —  One  of  the  most 
important  literary  figures  connected  with  the  awakening  of 
the  common  people  was  William  Langland  (1332-1400), 
who  wrote  The  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman.  In  this  dream, 
Langland  brings  together  in  an  open  field  a  crowd  of  people 
representing  all  classes  of  English  society;  the  plowman, 
the  laborer,  the  tradesman,  the  lawyer,  the  minstrel,  the 
friar,  the  pardoner,  the  knight.  The  central  figure  is  Lady 
Bribery,  expressing  the  corrupt  social  life  of  the  time.  Lang- 
land's  sympathies  are  distinctly  with  those  who  are  made 
to  labor  that  others  may  enjoy  the  fruit  of  their  labors. 
One  entire  division  of  the  poem  is  a  plea  for  the  dignity  and 
worth  of  toil.  The  Seven  Deadly  Sins  come  to  Piers  to  have 
him  lead  them  on  the  way  to  Truth,  but  he  refuses  to  go 
until  his  field  has  been  plowed.  They  all  set  to  work  on  the 
field  and  thereby  secure  their  salvation,  for,  as  they  work, 
pardon  comes  to  them  for  their  sins.  Another  division  shows 
the  religious  awakening  of  the  time.     Its  subject  is  "  The 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  203 

Search  for  Dowol,  Dobot,  Dobest."  He  who  does  well  is 
moral  jind  upriglit ;  he  who  does  better  is  also  loving  and 
kind ;  he  does  best  who  lives  after  the  model  of  Christ. 
Indeed,  Piers  in  a  way  represents  Christ,  and  appears  in  the 
poem  und(>r  a  halo  of  light. 

John  Wyclif .  —  A  still  more  influential  leader  of  the 
people  was  John  Wyclif  (1323-1384),  whose  greatest  service 
Avas  his  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English.  This  Bible 
profoundly  affected  the  life  of  the  English  people  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  it  had  to  be  circulated  entirely  in  manuscript, 
and  for  that  reason  could  not  be  universally  read.  It  was, 
moreover,  the  first  influential  piece  of  real  literary  English 
prose,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Sir  John  Mandeville's 
Travels.  Its  influence  both  on  English  prose  and  on  the 
lives  of  the  English  people  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Wyclif  also  organized  the  famous  Lollard  movement  for  the 
purification  of  religion,  modifying  many  of  the  ideas  of  the 
Roman  church.  Influential  friends  protected  him  from  per- 
secution during  his  lifetime,  but  some  years  after  his  death 
his  bones  were  dug  up  and  burned,  and  his  ashes  thrown  into 
the  river  Swift. 

Geoffrey  Chaucer  (1340-1400),  however,  was  by  far  the 
greatest  literary  figure  of  the  time.  He  was  not  a  reformer 
in  the  sense  that  Langland  and  Wyclif  were.  He  made  no 
war  upon  society.  He  made  no  war  against  the  church.  He 
was,  however,  a  very  penetrating  critic  of  life  and  the  prince 
of  story-tellers.  The  entire  life  of  the  time  is  reflected  in  his 
poetry.  He  knew  the  court ;  he  knew  the  common  people ; 
and  he  has  given  us  a  very  graphic  picture  of  the  virtues  and 
follies  of  both.  His  poems,  especially  The  Canterbury  Tales, 
are  full  of  the  most  delightful  satire  on  all  classes. 

Period  of  French  Influence.  —  His  literary  life  naturally 
divides  itself  into  three  periods.     Until  he  was  thirty  years 


204  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

old,  he  was  a  student  of  French  hfe  and  Hterature.  Under 
the  French  influence,  he  wrote  in  EngUsh  verse  a  long  trans- 
lation of  the  famous  French  poem,  The  Romaunt  of  the  Rose, 
an  allegory  about  love.  The  winning  of  a  lady's  favor  is 
represented  by  the  effort  to  secure  a  rose  which  blooms  in  a 
mystic  garden.  Some  of  the  characters  in  the  action  are 
Love,  Hate,  Envy,  Jealousy,  Idleness,  Sweet  Looks.  The 
Death  of  Blanche  the  Duchesse  also  belongs  to  this  period. 
It  was  written  after  the  death  of  Blanche,  wife  of  Chaucer's 
patron,  John  of  Gaunt,  to  solace  the  bereavement  of  her  hus- 
band. 

The  Italian  Period.  —  In  1370  Chaucer  was  sent  abroad  by 
the  government  on  the  first  of  those  diplomatic  missions  upon 
which  he  was  to  be  engaged  for  the  next  fifteen  years.  He 
visited  Italy  and  soon  came  under  the  influence  of  the  great 
Italian  writers.  The  period,  therefore,  from  1370  to  1386 
has  been  called  the  Italian  period  of  Chaucer's  life.  To  this 
period  belong  Troilus  and  Criseyde,  The  House  of  Fame,  and 
The  Legend  of  Good  Women. 

"  The  Legend  of  Good  Women."  —  The  prologue  to  The 
Legend  of  Good  Women  relates  that  on  Chaucer's  return  one 
evening  from  a  walk  in  the  fields  he  fell  asleep  in  his  garden 
and  dreamed  that  he  saw  coming  toward  him  across  the 
meadow  the  God  of  Love,  suncrowned  and  radiant  faced, 
leading  by  the  hand  the  royal  Alcestis.  The  God  of  Love 
chides  Chaucer  for  writing  books  of  false  and  fickle  love  such 
as  The  Romaunt  of  the  Rose  and  Troilus  and  Criseyde,  when 
he  might  be  writing  of  the  virtue  and  faithfulness  of  women. 
Alcestis  pleads  in  his  behalf,  and  secures  for  him  the  penance 
of  writing  a  series  of  stories  in  praise  of  good  women.  Then 
follow  nine  stories  celebrating,  among  others,  Cleopatra, 
Dido,  Thisbe,  Lucretia,  Ariadne,  and  Medea. 

The  House  of  Fame  is  also  a  dream.     Chaucer  finds  him- 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  205 

self  in  a  temple  of  glass  sacred  to  Venus.  The  place  is  full 
of  beautiful  statues,  one,  in  particular,  being  a  statue  of 
Venus  herself,  floating  in  a  lake.  The  chief  interest  of  the 
poet,  however,  is  in  a  brass  tablet  upon  which  he  reads  the 
story  of  The  jEncid,  beginning, 

"  I  wol  now  singe,  if  that  I  can, 
The  amies  and  al-so  the  man, 
That  first  came,  through  his  destinie, 
In  Itaile,  with  ful  moche  i)yne. 
Unto  the  strondes  of  Lavj'ne." 

Practically  all  of  Book  I  is  taken  up  with  a  summary  of  Vir- 
gil's Mneid,  emphasis  being  placed  upon  ^neas's  desertion 
of  Dido. 

In  the  second  book,  Jove's  bright  eagle  snatches  up  the 
poet,  and  carries  him  to  the  House  of  Fame,  midway  between 
heaven  and  earth.  Thither  all  the  sounds  of  the  world  are 
rushing,  making  a  noise  like  "  the  beating  of  the  sea  against 
the  hollow  rocks  in  time  of  tempest."  Within  the  house, 
Fame  sits  upon  her  throne  receiving  various  groups  of  people 
who  come  to  have  their  fames  decreed.  Eolus,  the  god  of 
the  winds,  stands  by  ready  to  blow  their  fames  upon  one  of 
two  clarions.  Praise  or  Slander.  Outside  the  palace  is  a  house 
sixty  miles  long,  made  of  twigs  in  constant  motion.  Here 
every  rumor  good  or  bad  takes  its  shape  before  going  to  the 
House  of  Fame  to  be  blown  over  the  earth  by  the  trumpet  of 
Eolus.     The  poem  breaks  off  abruptly  at  the  2158th  line. 

The  English  Period.  —  The  third  period  of  Chaucer's  life 
and  work  is  peculiarly  English.  He  lived  in  London  in  close 
touch  with  English  life,  growing  away  gradually  from  French 
and  Itahan  influences.  He  felt  keenly  all  th(>  new  forces  of 
English  national  life :  the  sense  of  unity  between  Norman 
and  Saxon,  the  national  pride  in  the  foreign  victories  of 
Edward  III,  the  growing  power  of  parliament,  the  awakened 


206  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

consciousness  of  the  common  people.  All  this  he  sought  to 
interpret  in  the  crowning  work  of  his  life,  The  Canterbury 
Tales. 

The  scheme  of  The  Canterbury  Tales  was  happily  chosen. 
In  the  Prologue  the  poet  imagines  himself  one  evening  at  the 
Tabard  Inn  in  Southwark,  near  the  southern  end  of  London 
Bridge,  in  company  with  twenty-nine  men  and  women  from 
all  classes  of  English  society,  ready  to  start  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  shrine  of  Thomas  a  Becket  at  Canterbury.  •  Chaucer 
describes  these  pilgrims  with  fine  accuracy  and  great  good 
humor. 

The  Pilgrims.  —  The  chivalric  courtly  class  is  represented 
by  the  knight  and  the  squire.  The  knight  is  a  model  of 
truth  and  honor,  liberality  and  courtesy.  He  has  fought  for 
the  faith  in  many  tournaments  and  battles,  and  always  had 
renown.  The  squire,  his  son,  is  a  gay  young  man  of  twenty, 
with  curly  hair  and  richly  embroidered  garments,  and  adept 
at  singing,  dancing,  and  playing  the  flute,  yet  skillful  and 
strong  withal.  To  the  peasantry  belong  a  yeoman,  with 
coat  and  hood  of  green,  and  a  forester  with  bow  and  arrows 
and  horn.  The  church  is  represented  by  a  group  comprised 
of  a  prioress,  a  monk,  a  friar,  a  parson,  a  pardoner,  and  a 
summoner.  They  represent  the  shortcomings  and  the  virtues 
of  the  churchmen  of  the  time,  both  the  corrupt  ecclesiastics, 
against  whom  Langland  wrote,  and  the  reforming  class,  to 
which  Wyclif  belonged.  The  monk  is  a  man  of  pleasure, 
provided  with  rich  clothes  and  fine  horses  and  especially  fond 
of  hunting  and  feasting.  The  friar  is  "a  wanton  and  a 
merry  "  ecclesiastic,  free  in  granting  his  absolutions,  and  easy 
in  imposing  penances.  The  summoner  is  a  very  repulsive 
person,  with  blotched  face,  fiery  red,  and  with  a  fondness  for 
garlic,  onions,  and  strong  drink.  The  pardoner  is  a  careless 
fellow  with  a  wallet  full  of  "  pardons  come  from  Rome  all 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  207 

hot."  He  carries  also  bits  of  cloth  and  pig's  bones,  which  he 
sells  as  relics  of  the  holy  saints.  The  prioress  is  a  dainty 
lady,  whose  table  manners  are  the  most  exquisite,  and  who 
sings  the  divine  service  "  entuned  in  her  nose  ful  semely." 
The  parson  is  the  true  and  noble  representative  of  the  (diurch, 
rich  in  holy  thought  and  work,  a  real  preacher  of  the  Gospel, 
careful  of  tiie  good  of  his  people,  helpful  in  sickness  and  dis- 
tress, a  noble  example  of  right  living,  a  true  follower  of  Wyclif 
and  the  other  reformers.  The  landed  proprietors  are  repre- 
sented by  the  franklin,  Epicurus's  own  son  ;  the  professional 
classes,  by  the  doctor  and  the  lawyer ;  the  business  class, 
by  the  merchant,  the  miller,  the  carpenter,  the  weaver,  the 
dyer,  and  the  upholsterer.  The  Wife  of  Bath  represents  the 
women  of  the  middle  class.  Her  face  is  bold  and  her  teeth 
far  apart  and  protruding.  She  is  conspicuously  dressed, 
with  hat  as  "  broad  as  is  a  buckler  or  a  targe,"  with  scarlet- 
red  stockings,  and  with  spurs  upon  her  "  shoes  ful  moiste 
and  newe."  She  has  a  mania  for  pilgrimages.  At  the  same 
time,  she  is  an  expert  spinner  and  weaver,  and  has  been 
attractive  enough  to  win  five  husbands.  Finally,  the  schol- 
ars are  represented  by  a  clerk  of  Oxford,  an  unworldly,  hol- 
low-cheeked man  in  threadbare  coat,  but  all  aglow  with  the 
new  passion  for  learning : 

"For  him  was  levere  have  at  his  beddes  heed 
Twenty  bokes,  clad  in  blak  or  reed 
Of  Aristotle  and  his  philosophye. 
Than  robes  riche,  or  fithele  or  gay  sautrye. 
But  al  be  that  he  was  a  philosophre, 
Yet  hadde  he  Ijut  litel  gold  in  oof  re ; 
But  al  that  he  mighte  of  his  frendes  hente. 
On  bokes  and  on  lerninge  he  it  spente, 
And  busily  gan  for  th(>  soulos  preye 
Of  hem  that  yaf  him  wlierwith  to  scoleye. 


208  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Of  studie  took  he  most  cure  and  most  hede. 
Noght  o  word  spak  he  more  than  was  nede, 
And  that  was  seyd  in  forme  and  reverence, 
And  short  and  quik  and  ful  of  hy  sentence ; 
Sowninge  in  moral  vertu  was  liis  speche, 
And  gladly  wolde  he  lerne,  and  gladly  teche." 

"  The  Knight's  Tale."  —  At  the  suggestion  of  the  host  at 
the  Tabard  Inn,  each  pilgrim  agrees  to  tell  two  stories  on  the 
way  to  Canterbury,  and  two  returning,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  the  best  story-teller  shall  receive  a  free  dinner  at 
the  end.  Chaucer  wrote,  however,  only  twenty-four  of  these 
stories.  The  most  interesting  are  The  Knight's  Tale  and  The 
Nun's  Priest's  Tale.  The  Knight  tells  the  story  of  Palamon 
and  Arcite,  two  Theban  youths  who  have  been  captured 
by  Theseus  and  confined  in  an  Athenian  prison.  From 
the  prison  window,  they  see  Theseus' s  sister,  EmiHe, 
walking  in  the  garden,  and  both  fall  violently  in  love 
with  her.  Arcite  is  released  from  prison  and  Palamon 
escapes.  They  meet  by  chance  in  a  wood  and  are  on  the 
point  of  fighting  when  Theseus  and  his  train  interrupt.  Both 
lovers  are  at  first  condemned  to  death ;  but  on  the  interces- 
sion of  the  women,  a  great  tournament  is  arranged  instead. 
Each  lover  is  to  appear  with  a  hundred  knights  and  fight  for 
Emilie  as  the  prize  of  victory.  Palamon  is  overcome ;  but 
in  the  moment  of  victory,  Arcite  is  thrown  from  his  horse  and 
mortally  injured.  In  the  end  Palamon  and  Emilie  are 
married. 

The  Nun's  Priest's  Tale  is  a  quaint  and  humorous  story 
of  the  cock  and  the  hen.  Chanticleer,  the  king  of  a  poor 
widow's  barnyard,  and  Pertelote,  the  most  beautiful  of  his 
seven  wives,  are  very  learned  fowls,  conversant  with  all  the 
literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  even  of  the  classical  past. 
Chanticleer  has  had  a  disturbing  dream,  in  which  a  bushy- 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  209 

tailed  beast  threatened  to  carry  him  off.  Pertelote  twits 
him  for  his  cowardice,  and,  in  the  exact  manner  of  the 
medieval  schoolmen,  quotes  Cato  to  prove  that  dreams  are 
of  no  significance.  He  needs  to  be  purged  ;  and  she  herself 
will  prepare  the  medicine.  Chanticleer  replies  with  quotations 
from  Macrobius,  Daniel,  Joseph,  and  others  to  prove  the 
significance  of  dreams.  Indeed,  he  quite  overcomes  poor 
Pertelote  with  arguments  and  citations,  and  scorns  her 
laxative.  The  fox  presently  discovers  himself,  and  after 
flattering  Chanticleer  till  he  is  off  his  guard,  seizes  him  and 
starts  for  the  woods.  Then  the  hens  set  up  such  a  cry  as 
was  not  heard  when  Troy  was  taken  and  King  Priam  slain. 
Pertelote  shrieks  louder  than  Hasdrubale's  wife  at  the  burn- 
ing of  Carthage,  when  her  husband  lost  his  life.  The  din 
arouses  the  widow  and  her  daughters,  who  pursue  the  fox. 
The  chase  is  joined  by  men  with  staves,  by  the  dog,  by  the 
cow  and  calf,  even  by  the  very  hogs,  all  shouting  "like  fiends 
in  hell."  At  this  crisis,  Chanticleer  persuades  the  fox  to 
shout  defiance  at  his  pursuers  and,  when  the  fox  opens 
his  mouth  to  do  so,  escapes  to  a  neighboring  tree  and  is  safe. 
The  moral  of  the  story  is  explained  by  both  the  cock  and  the 

fox: 

"For  he  that  winketh,  whan  he  sholde  see, 
Al  wilfully,  God  lat  him  never  thee  [thrive]!" 

"  '  Nay'  quod  the  fox,  'but  God  give  him  mischaunce 
That  is  as  undiscrete  of  governaunce, 
That  jangleth  whan  he  sholde  holde  his  pees.'  " 

The  fine  satire  of  the  poem  can  only  be  appreciated  when  the 
entire  story  is  read  in  the  original. 

(c)    THE  RISE   OF   THE   DRAMA 

The  Religious  Plays.  —  The  chief  literary  interest  between 
the  death  of  Chaucer  (1400)  and  the  birth  of  Shakespeare 


210  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

(1564)  is  in  the  rise  of  the  drama.  The  modern  drama  really 
began  in  the  services  of  the  medieval  church.  The  mass 
itself  was  a  kind  of  drama  of  repentance,  sacrifice,  and  for- 
giveness, with  the  dramatic  effect  enhanced  by  the  belief 
that  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  communion  were  actually 
changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  It  was  alto- 
gether natural  that  the  details  should  be  worked  up  with 
an  eye  for  dramatic  effects.  At  first,  in  the  chanting  of  the 
mass,  certain  tones  were  prolonged  and  grace  notes  added. 
Later,  words  were  supplied  from  the  Bible  text  appropriate 
to  the  service  of  the  day,  the  birth  of  Christ  at  Christmas, 
for  instance,  or  the  resurrection  at  Easter.  Individual  singers 
took  the  parts  of  the  Shepherds  who  came  to  adore  the  baby 
Christ,  or  represented  the  angel  at  the  grave  of  the  Saviour, 
or  the  three  Marys  who  came  early  on  Easter  morning  to  see 
where  their  Lord  had  been  laid.  As  time  went  on,  complete 
scenes  with  dialogue  and  appropriate  action  were  presented 
in  the  midst  of  the  mass,  helping  the  audience  to  understand 
the  service,  and  adding  much  to  the  popular  interest.  Gradu- 
ally, the  scenes  grew  too  long  to  be  a  part  of  the  service,  and 
the  setting  too  large  for  the  space  around  the  high  altar.  The 
scenes  then  became  separated  from  the  mass  proper  and  were 
performed  by  themselves,  first  in  the  aisles  of  the  church,  then 
at  the  church  door,  and  finally,  on  pageant  wagons  drawn  from 
place  to  place  in  the  city  streets.  Finally,  there  were  long 
series  or  cycles  of  plays  representing  the  entire  Bible  story 
from  Creation  to  Doomsday.  The  most  important  series  in 
English  are  The  Chester  Plays,  The  York  Plays,  and  The 
Townley  Plays.  These  plays  were  exceedingly  popular  at  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  and  throughout  the  fifteenth  centuries. 
The  Popular  Entertainments.  — -  When  the  early  dramas 
ceased  to  be  a  part  of  the  regular  church  service,  they  had  to 
compete   with    popular    entertainments,  and    thus    became 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  211 

more  subject  to  the  popular  taste.  This  taste  had  been 
fashioned  by  certain  popuhir  customs  more  or  less  dramatic. 
The  old  ballads,  for  instance,  were  acted  in  song  and  dance. 
In  the  May  season,  two  young  men,  dressed  to  represent 
Summer  and  Winter,  engaged  in  a  symbolic  contest,  and 
fought  till  Summer  won.  The  story  of  Robin  Hood  in 
dramatic  form  had  a  place  in  the  Mayday  celebration. 
There  was  also  the  custom  of  disguisings  in  skins  of  beasts 
and  in  masks  representing  beasts'  heads.  In  particular, 
the  devil  with  horns  and  tail  and  cloven  feet  was  represented 
playing  tricks  upon  the  unwary,  and  executing  countless 
buffooneries.  Last  of  all,  certain  strolling  entertainers 
performed  feats  of  jugglery,  represented  little  comic  scenes 
in  dialogue,  and  perhaps  continued  some  of  the  traditions  of 
the  classical  theater. 

The  Mystery  or  Miracle  Play.  —  The  plays  which  grew 
out  of  the  church  service  and  became  known  as  Mystery 
or  Miracle  plays  were  quite  different  from  these  popular 
comic  entertainments,  but  they  had  to  be  adapted  to  the 
popular  demands.  Since  the  Bible  story  itself  was  hardly 
suited  to  comic  treatment,  scenes  which  had  nothing  to  do 
with  the  Bible  had  to  be  introduced.  The  first  of  these 
scenes  seems  to  have  grown  up  in  connection  with  the  devil, 
who  was  a  character  both  in  the  popular  dramatic  customs 
and  in  the  religious  plays.  The  church  thought  of  him 
primarily  as  the  great  principle  of  evil,  the  adversary  of  God 
and  of  man,  strong  in  the  battle  for  souls,  and  delighting  to 
torture  those  who,  through  his  wiles,  lost  their  hope  of  bliss. 
But  the  popular  imagination  had  changed  him  into  a  beast- 
demon,  with  horns  and  tail  and  cloven  feet,  exhibiting  gro- 
tesque and  sportive  characteristics.  As  we  have  seen,  he  was 
connected  with  the  popular  customs  as  a  player  of  pranks. 
Of  course,  when  the  devil  came  to  be  represented  in  the 


212  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Miracle  plays,  the  people  demanded,  not  the  old  theological 
devil,  but  their  own  familiar  fiend.  He  came  upon  the  stage 
with  his  horns  and  tail  and  cloven  feet,  playing  his  pranks, 
and  bringing  with  him  much  of  the  comedy  with  which  he  had 
been  associated  in  the  popular  customs. 

The  Shepherd's  Play.  —  This  comedy  soon  spread  beyond 
the  scenes  in  which  devils  appeared ;  and,  in  the  end,  elabo- 
rate comic  scenes  were  introduced,  sometimes  quite  incongru- 
ously. In  the  Shepherd's  Play  of  the  Townley  series,  for 
instance,  a  genuine  farce  is  developed,  a  sheep-stealing 
episode.  While  the  shepherds  are  keeping  watch  over  their 
flocks  a  suspicious  character  of  the  neighborhood,  Mak 
by  name,  approaches.  The  shepherds  are  openly  distrust- 
ful of  the  scamp,  and  when  they  lie  down  to  sleep,  make  him 
lie  between  two  of  the  shepherds,  lest  he  rob  their  flock. 
However,  while  the  shepherds  are  sleeping,  Mak  contrives  to 
escape,  steals  and  carries  home  a  fat  wether,  and  creeps  back 
unnoticed  to  his  place  between  the  shepherds.  When  the 
shepherds  waken,  they  go  to  count  their  sheep,  and  Mak 
hastens  home  to  tell  his  wife  that  the  theft  has  been  discovered 
and  that  the  shepherds  will  soon  be  at  hand  to  search  the 
house.  The  two  plan  to  put  the  dead  sheep  in  a  cradle 
and  to  pretend  that  a  baby  has  been  born.  Presently  the 
shepherds  appear  and  search  the  house  in  vain,  Mak  caution- 
ing them  all  the  time  not  to  waken  the  baby.  Unfortunately 
for  Mak,  however,  one  of  the  shepherds,  when  on  the  point 
of  leaving,  regrets  that  he  has  been  unjust  to  Mak  and 
returns  to  make  a  little  present  to  the  baby.  He  pulls 
back  the  coverlet  and  discovers  the  sheep. 

" '  Gyf  me  lefe  hym  to  kys 
And  h'ft  up  the  clowtt. 
What  the  de\ill  is  this? 
He  has  a  long  snowte.'  " 


THE    MIDDLE    EXdLISH    PERIOD  213 

The  shepherds  punish  Mak  by  tossing  him  in  a  sheet. 
Just  as  they  are  finishing,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  ap- 
pears and  the  heavenly  host  sings  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis. 
The  shepherds  then  proceed  to  Bethlehem  to  adore  the 
Christ. 

It  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to  the  medieval  mind 
that  this  crude  combination  was  either  incongruous  or 
sacrilegious.  It  pleased  the  audience,  and  —  a  thing  which 
is  of  much  more  importance  —  it  introduced  into  the  English 
drama  the  notion  of  double  plot,  a  serious  main  plot  and 
a  comic  underplot,  side  by  side,  but  often  quite  inde- 
pendent. 

The  Morality  Play.  —  In  the  course  of  time  the  Miracle 
plays  passed  beyond  the  control  of  the  clergy  into  the  hands 
of  the  trade  guilds,  which  used  them  as  the  attractive  feature 
of  great  public  fairs.  These  occasions  furnished  a  harvest 
time  for  thieves  and  scoundrels.  Confidence  games  and 
all  sorts  of  immoralities  flourished.  The  clergy,  therefore, 
turned  against  the  Miracle  play  and  introduced  a  new  and 
less  objectionable  drama.  This  was  the  Morality  play,  in 
which  abstract  qualities  were  personified  and  brought  upon 
the  stage  to  work  out  some  moral  lesson.  Virtues  and  vices, 
for  instance,  contended  for  the  soul  of  mankind,  the  virtues, 
of  course,  being  victorious.  The  best  known  of  these  plays 
is  Everyman. 

"After  a  brief  prologue  spoken  by  a  Messenger,  the  action  opens 
when  Adonai,  looking  down  upon  the  sinful  earth,  perceives  how 
Everyman  'lyveth  after  his  own  pleasure,'  as  if  ignoring  the  utter 
uncertainty  of  the  tenure  of  human  life.  He  therefore  calls  upon 
Death,  his  'mighty  messengere '  to  proceed  to  Everyman,  and 
summon  him  to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  which  ho  in  no  wise  may 
escape,  and  bid  him  bring  with  him  without  delay  a  sure  reckoning. 
Death  delivers  his  message  to  Everyman,  wlio  tries  in  vain  by  pleas 


214  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

and  bribes  to  turn  the  summoner  away.  Then,  having  received 
the  hint  that  he  '  should  prove  his  friends  if  he  can,'  to  see  whether 
any  of  them  is  so  hardy  as  to  accompany  him  on  the  journey 
which  he  must  take,  Every  man,  left  alone  in  his  terror,  bethinks  him 
of  appealing  to  his  old  friend  Fellowship,  his  comrade  in  many  a 
day  of  sport  and  play,  to  go  with  him.  Fellowship,  accosted  as 
he  passes  over  the  stage,  is  full  of  assurances,  for  which  he  will  not 
be  thanked.  But  a  mention  of  the  service  required  soon  brings  a 
change  over  his  professions,  though  he  is  quite  at  Evenjman's 
service  for  a  cUnner  or  murder  or  anything  of  that  sort.  When 
he  has  departed,  and  Everyman  has  made  a  similarly  futile  appeal 
to  two  associates  called  Kinsman  and  Cousin,  he  calls  to  mind  one 
other  friend  whom  he  has  loved  all  his  life,  and  who  will  surely 
prove  true  to  him  in  his  distress.  Riches  this  abstraction  is  called  ; 
'Property'  would  be  the  modern  equivalent.  .  .  .  But  although, 
with  self-confidence  of  capital.  Riches  avers  that  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  the  world  which  he  cannot  set  straight,  Everyman's  difficult)^  is 
unfortunately  not  one  this  world  can  settle.  He  has  therefore  in 
despair  to  fall  back  upon  the  very  last  of  the  friends  of  whom  he  can 
think  —  his  Good-Deeds.  Good-Deeds  answers  that  she  is  so  weak 
that  she  can  barely  rise  from  the  ground,  where  she  lies  cold  and 
bound  in  Everyman's  sins.  Yet  not  only  will  she  respond  to  his 
entreaty,  but  she  will  bring  with  her  Knowledge,  her  sister,  to  help 
liim  in  making  'that  dredeful  rekenyge.'  Knowledge,  by  whom  we 
may  suppose  to  be  meant  the  discreet  and  learned  advice  which 
religion  has  at  her  service,  declares  her  willingness  to  stand  by 
Everyman  at  the  judgment  seat,  and  meanwhile  by  her  advice 
he  addresses  himself  to  Confession,  who  bestows  on  him  a  precious 
jewel,  'Called  penannce,  voyder  of  adversyte.' 

As  he  begins  his  last  journey,  a  mortal  weakness  comes  over  him  ; 
one  after  another  his  companions,  Beauty,  Strength,  Discretion,  the 
Five  Wits,  take  their  leave.  Good  Deeds  shall  make  all  sure;  and 
that  the  voices  of  angels  are  even  now  welcoming  the  ransomed  soul. 
And  as  an  Angel  descends  to  carry  it  heavenward,  a  personage  called 
Doctor  epitomizes  the  lesson  which  the  action  of  the  play  has  illus- 
trated." 


THE    MIDDLE   ENGLISH    PERIOD  215 

The  Interlude.  —  Another  type  of  play  was  the  interlude, 
at  first  a  little  scene  performed  between  the  courses  of  a 
banquet,  but  later  enlarged  and  developed.  An  example  is 
The  Foure  PP  by  John  Heywood,  a  scene  in  which  a  Pothe- 
cary,  a  Pardoner,  and  a  Palmer  enter  into  a  contest  to  deter- 
mine which  can  tell  the  biggest  lie.  The  Pedler  is  the  judge. 
The  Pothecary  tells  of  his  wondrous  cures ;  the  Pardoner, 
of  how  he  went  down  to  hell  to  pardon  a  sinner.  Each 
tells  a  lie  worthy  of  the  prize,  but  the  Palmer  wins  with  the 
following : 

"  Yet  have  I  sene  manj^  a  myle 
And  many  a  woman  in  the  whjde,  — 
Not  one  good  cytye,  towne,  nor  borough 
In  Crist  endom  but  I  have  be  thorough  ^ 
And  this  I  wolde  ye  shulde  understande : 
I  have  scne  women  a  hundred  thousands 
And  oft  with  them  have  longe  tyme  taryed. 
Yet  in  all  places  where  I  have  been 
Of  all  the  women  that  I  have  sene, 
I  never  sawe  nor  knewe,  in  my  consyens 
Any  one  woman  out  of  paciens." 

They  all  cry  out  at  the  magnitude  of  this  lie,  and  the  Pedler 
awards  the  prize  to  the  Palmer. 

Conclusion.  —  The  Miracles,  Moralities,  and  Interludes 
were  the  principal  types  of  native  English  drama  before  the 
Renaissance.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  however,  the  re- 
vival of  learning  brought  into  favor,  especially  at  the  schools 
and  universities,  the  dramatic  literature  of  Greece  and  of 
Rome.  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Seneca  were  especially  pop- 
ular among  the  cultivated  classes.  Gradually  the  influence 
of  these  dramatists  affected  the  popular  theater.  In  the 
end,  the  two  —  the  drama  of  the  schoolmen  and  the  drama 
of  the  people  —  united  to  produce  the  great  dramatic  lit- 


216  STUDIES   IX   LITERATURE 

erature  of  Shakespeare's  time.     A  discussion  of  this,  how- 
ever, belongs  in  the  next  chapter. 

Suggested  Readings^ 

Ballads  and  Romances:  (1)  Selections  from  Old  English  Ballads; 
(2)  Malory's  Mode  d' Arthur,  Books  XIII  and  XVII. 

Chaucer:  Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  The  Knight's  Tale, 
The  Nun's  Priest's  Tale. 

Drama  :  The  Second  Shepherd's  Play,  Everyman,  and  Other  Early 
Plays.     (Riverside  Literature  Series,  Xo  191.) 

'  Except  where  special  editions  are  mentioned,  the  books  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Pocket  Series  of  English  Classics,  published  by  The  Macmillan 
Company. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE  RENAISSANCE 

The  sixteenth  century  was  a  time  of  great  intellectual 
activity  in  England  ;  almost,  if  not  quite,  the  most  brilliant 
period  in  English  literature.  Back  in  the  fifteenth  century 
events  had  taken  place  which  were  fast  transforming  the  in- 
tellectual life  of  all  Europe.  At  first  these  events  were  more 
influential  on  the  continent  than  in  England,  because  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses  hatl  so  distracted  the  English  people  and 
wasted  their  enc^rgies  that  intellectual  progress  was  almost 
impossible.  Still,  there  were  signs  of  revival  even  in  fifteenth- 
century  England,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  new  century 
the  nation  was  ready  to  yield  itself  with  enthusiasm  to  all 
the  forces  of  the  Renaissance.  The  most  important  of  these 
forces,  as  far  as  literature  is  concerned,  were  the  rise  of  Human- 
ism, the  invention  of  printing,  the  discovery  of  the  new  world, 
and  the  Reformation. 

Humanism  is  the  name  given  to  the  reawakened  interest 
in  the  study  of  the  classical  literature  of  Greece  and  of  Rome. 
It  began  in  Italy.  Indeed,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
Italy  led  the  world  in  learning.  Earlier  in  the  century, 
Constantinople  had  been  the  center  of  the  Greek  learning ; 
but  after  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Turks  in  1453 
Greek  scholars  flocked  into  Italy,  bringing  numerous  Greek 
manuscripts  with  them,  and  spreading  the  influence  of 
their  learning  everywhere.  Copies  of  these  manuscripts 
were  distributed  over  all  Europe,  reaching,  among  other 
places,  the  English  universities. 

217 


218  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

The  Invention  of  Printing.  —  This  humanistic  movement 
was  greatly  accelerated  by  Gutenberg's  invention  of  printing. 
Before  this  invention  the  masterpieces  of  literature  were 
written  out  by  hand  on  parchment  or  vellum,  and  were  there- 
fore very  costly.  The  only  books,  as  the  terra  is  commonly 
understood,  were  picture  books  called  "  block  books,"  printed 
on  coarse  paper  from  wooden  blocks.  Some  of  the  "  blocks  " 
contained  words  and  sentences,  but  movable  type  was  not  used 
until  Gutenberg  invented  the  printing  press.  The  method  of 
printing  from  movable  type  was  completely  successful  before 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  was  introduced  into 
England  by  William  Caxton  in  1476.  Printing  made  books 
much  cheaper.  Manuscripts  were  worth  fifty  cents  a  page 
or  more,  and  were  consequently  beyond  the  reach  of  all  but 
the  most  wealthy.  One  of  Caxton's  books  entire  could  be 
bought  for  from  thirty  to  fifty  dollars.  This  seems  high- 
priced  to  us  in  the  days  of  numerous  cheap  editions,  but  the 
printed  book  was  so  much  less  expensive  than  manuscript 
that  a  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  spread  of  learning. 

Maritime  Discoveries.  —  The  minds  of  men  were  stim- 
ulated also  by  a  rapid  series  of  maritime  discoveries.  Colum- 
bus discovered  America  in  1492.  Almost  immediately 
afterward  Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  Africa  and  reached  In- 
dia by  sea.  The  Cabots  sailed  to  the  mainland  of  North 
America,  and  brought  back  wonderful  stories  of  the  new 
continent.  In  1520  Magellan  sailed  round  the  world.  And 
to  know  the  circumference  of  the  earth  was  not  all,  for 
Copernicus  discovered  that  the  earth  itself,  huge  as  it  seemed, 
is  but  an  insignificant  thing  in  the  wide  universe,  just  one  of 
the  myriad  stars,  and  by  no  means  the  most  important.  All 
this  knowledge  enlarged  the  mind  and  stimulated  the  imagina- 
tion more  than  we  can  easily  realize. 

The  Reformation.  —  The  Reformation,  too,  was  a  mighty 


THE   RENAISSANCE  •         219 

influence.  Martin  Luther,  in  Germany,  insisted  upon  the 
right  of  the  individual  to  think  for  himself,  and  aroused  a 
widespread  desire  for  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures  in  order  to  learn  better  the  real  grounds  for  the 
Christian  faith.  This  inspired  William  Tyndale,  an  English 
clerg3^man,  to  translate  the  Bible  into  the  English  of  his  own 
day.  Wyclif's  translation  had  had  but  a  limited  influence, 
because  it  had  circulated  only  in  manuscript,  and  because 
the  language  had  changed  much  since  Wyclif's  time.  Tyn- 
dale's  printed  Bible  was  far  more  influential.  The  Reverend 
Stopford  Brooke  says  of  it  :  "It  was  this  Bible  which,  re- 
vised by  Coverdale  and  edited  and  reedited  as  Cromwell's 
Bible  in  1539,  and  again  as  Cranmer^s  Bible,  1540,  was  set 
up  in  every  parish  church  in  England.  It  got  north  into 
Scotland  and  made  the  Lowland  English  more  like  the 
London  English.  It  passed  over  to  the  Protestant  settle- 
ments in  Ireland.  After  its  revival  in  1611  it  went  with  the 
Puritan  Fathers  to  New  England  and  fixed  the  standard  of 
English  in  America.  Millions  of  people  now  speak  the  Eng- 
lish of  Tyndale's  Bible,  The  King  James  Version,  and  there 
is  no  other  book  which  has  had  so  great  an  influence  on  the 
style  of  English  literature  and  the  standard  of  English  Prose." 

(fl)    NON-DRAMATIC   LITERATURE 

Miscellanies.  —  One  of  the  first  significant  books  showing 
the  Renaissance  influence  in  England  is  TotteVs  Miscellany, 
a  collection  of  poems  published  in  1557,  the  year  before 
Elizabeth's  accession.  Many  of  the  poems  of  this  collection 
were  written  by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  and  Henry  Howard, 
Earl  of  Surrey,  court  poets  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  who 
were  inspired  largely  by  the  Italian  culture.  Twenty-six 
of  Wyatt's  sonnets,  for  example,  are  translations  from 
Petrarch.     This  miscellany  was  followed  by  many  similar 


220  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

collections  both  in  poetry  and  pro.sc,  notably  The  Mirror  for 
Magistrates  (1559),  Paradise  of  Dainty  Devices  (1576),  and 
Painter^ s  Palace  of  Pleasure  (1566).  These  collections,  es- 
pecially the  last,  furnished  Shakespeare  and  his  contem- 
poraries with  the  subject-matter  for  many  of  their  famous 
masterpieces. 

John  Lyly  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  —  More  important  than 
miscellanies  are  John  Lyly's  Euphues  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney's 
Arcadia.  Both  are  prose  stories,  long  and  full  of  digressions. 
Euphues  consists  of  a  loose  framework  of  story  into  which 
Lyly  fits  his  ideas  of  love,  friendship,  education,  and  religion. 
The  latter  part  reflects  the  life,  the  talk,  and  the  dress  of  the 
court  of  Elizabeth,  its  fantastic  and  extravagant  gallantry, 
its  fanciful  imitation  of  chivalry,  its  far-fetched  metaphors 
and  playing  with  language,  its  curious  and  gorgeous  fashions 
in  dress.  The  Arcadia  is  a  pastoral  romance,  full  of  fine  and 
delicate  sentiment,  polished  and  poetic,  quite  like  its  author, 
the  noble  Christian  knight  who  was  recognized  as  the  pattern 
gentleman  of  his  time.  Both  stories  represent  the  new  Re- 
naissance interest  in  the  art  of  writing.  There  is  an  effort 
to  make  them  smooth  and  charming  in  style.  They  seem 
artificial  to-day  because  they  are  so  fantastic  and  flowery. 
Yet  they  helped  to  give  polish  to  literature,  and  they  are  full 
of  imaginative  thought,  which  furnished  much  material  to  the 
poets  of  the  time. 

''The  Shepherd's  Calendar."  —  The  most  famous  poet  of 
the  period  was  Edmund  Spenser  (1552-1599).  His  work 
represents  the  indirect  and  artificial  manner  of  the  pastoral 
and  the  allegory.  His  first  important  work,  The  Shepherd^s 
Calendar  (1579),  is  a  conventional  pastoral.  The  characters 
are  spoken  of  as  shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  and  they  have 
the  sheep  and  the  crook,  but  in  thought  they  are  far  from 
simple  country  people.     The  Calendar  is  a  collection  of  poems, 


rilE    RENAISSANCE  221 

one  for  each  month  of  the  year.  Only  five  of  them  have  to 
do  directly  with  country  life.  The  rest  comprise  fable, 
satire,  allegory.  One  of  them  is  in  praise  of  the  Queen. 
They  were  recognized  at  once  as  being  the  best  poetry  since 
Chaucer's  time. 

"The  Faerie  Queene." — Spenser's  greatest  work  was  The 
Faerie  Queene,  an  allegory  published  in  1590.  The  poem  is 
an  allegorical  romance  of  chivalry.  In  the  introductory 
letter  to  Raleigh,  Spenser  explains  that  his  plan  is  to  write, 
in  twelve  books,  the  adventures  of  twelve  knights,  who 
represent  the  twelve  virtues  of  Aristotle,  and  who  contend 
with  the  opposing  vices.  The  main  hero,  however,  was  to 
be  Arthur,  the  hero  of  the  old  romances,  who  represents  the 
sum  of  all  virtues.  In  the  end  he  was  to  be  wedded  to  the 
Faerie  Queene,  the  glory  of  God,  to  which  all  human  act 
and  thought  aspire.  The  Faerie  Queene  also  represents 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Duessa  is  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Arthur 
is  sometimes  Leicester,  and  sometimes  Sidney.  Other  al- 
legories also  slip  in,  referring  often  to  the  events  of  the  day. 
Only  six  of  the  proposed  books  were  completed,  the  legends 
of  Holiness,  Temperance,  Chastity,  Friendship,  Justice,  and 
Courtesy.  The  allegory  is  clear  in  the  first  two  books ;  but, 
as  the  story  advances,  digressions  frequently  appear,  and 
the  allegory  becomes  complicated. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  figure  out  all  the  allegory 
in  order  to  enjoy  the  book.  The  poem  may  be  read  simply 
for  its  exquisite  pictures,  its  rich  and  varied  imagery,  the 
ever  changing  music  of  the  verse,  and,  in  general,  the  pre- 
vailing atmosphere  of  romance.  The  Reverend  Stopford 
Brooke  says  of  it : 

"It  is  the  jiocm  of  the  noble  power  of  the  human  soul  struggling 
towards  union  with  God,  and  warring  against  all  the  forms  of 
evil ;    and  these  powers  become  real  personages,  whose  lives  and 


222  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

battles  Spenser  tells  in  verse  so  musical  and  gliding,  so  delicately 
wrought,  so  rich  in  imaginative  ornament,  and  so  inspired  with  the 
finer  life  of  beauty,  that  he  has  been  called  the  poet's  Poet.  De- 
scriptions like  those  of  the  House  of  Pride  and  the  Mask  of  Cupid, 
and  of  the  Months,  are  so  i-ivid  in  form  and  color,  that  they  have 
alwaj's  made  subjects  for  artists,  while  the  allegorical  personages 
are,  to  the  very  last  detail,  wrought  out  by  an  imagination  which 
describes  not  only  the  general  character,  but  the  special  characteris- 
tics of  the  Virtues  or  the  Vices,  of  the  Months  of  the  j^ear,  or  of  the 
Rivers  of  England.  In  its  ideal  whole,  the  poem  represents  the 
new  love  of  chivalry,  of  classical  learning,  the  dehght  in  mystic 
theories  of  love  and  reUgion,  in  allegorical  schemes,  in  splendid 
spectacles  and  pageants,  in  wild  adventure,  the  love  of  England,  the 
hatred  of  Spain,  the  strange  worship  of  the  Queen,  even  Spenser's 
own  new  love.  It  takes  up  and  uses  the  popular  legends  of  fairies, 
dwarfs,  and  giants,  all  the  machinery  of  the  Itahan  epics,  and 
mingles  them  up  \\'ith  the  wild  scenery  of  Ireland  and  the  savages 
and  wonders  of  the  New  World.  Almost  the  whole  spirit  of  the 
Renaissance  under  Ehzabeth,  except  its  coarser  and  baser  ele- 
ments, is  in  its  pages.  Of  anj'thing  impure,  or  ugly,  or  violent, 
there  is  no  trace.  ^\nd  Spenser  adds  to  all  his  own  sacred  love  of 
love,  his  ow^l  preeminent  sense  of  the  lovehness  of  loveliness,  walk- 
ing through  the  whole  of  this  woven  world  of  faerie  — 

'With  the  moon's  beauty  and  the  moon's  soft  pace. ' " 

The  Spenserian  Stanza.  —  The  verse  form  of  The  Faerie 
Queene  was  an  invention  of  Spenser  and  is  known  as  the 
Spenserian  stanza.  It  consists  of  nine  iambic  lines,  eight  of 
five  feet  each,  and  the  last  of  six  feet,  riming  abahhcbcc.  The 
following  passage,  relating  to  Morpheus,  god  of  sleep,  illus- 
trates the  meter  and  at  the  same  time  well  exemplifies  the 
sweetness  and  beauty  of  poetic  style  which  is  peculiarly 
Spenserian. 

"And  more  to  luUe  him  in  his  slumber  soft, 

A  trickling  streame  from  high  rock  tumbling  downe, 


THE    RENAISSANCE  223 

And  ever-drizling  raine  upoii  tlie  loft, 
Mixt  with  a  murmuriiif^  winde,  much  Hke  the  sowne 
Of  swarming  Bees,  did  cast  him  in  a  swowne. 
No  other  noyse,  nor  people  troublous  cryes, 
As  still  are  wont  t'annoy  the  walled  towne, 
Might  there  be  heard ;   but  carlesse  Quiet  lyes 
Wrajjt  in  eternal  silence  farre  from  enimyes." 

Francis  Bacon  (1561-1626)  was  another  distinguished 
literary  figure.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  a  judge,  an 
effective  speaker  in  parliament,  a  writer  of  essays  and  philo- 
sophical treatises.  Most  of  his  philosophical  work  is  in 
Latin ;  The  Advancement  of  Learning,  in  both  Latin  and  Eng- 
lish ;  the  Essays,  in  English  alone.  His  fame  in  English 
literature  rests  largely  upon  the  Essays,  notably  those  on 
Studies,  Riches,  Adversity,  Friendship,  Great  Place.  His  writ- 
ings are  not  emotional  and  romantic  like  Lyly's  Euphues  and 
Sidney's  Arcadia,  but  highly  intellectual.  Simplicity  and  di- 
rectness are  the  prevailing  attributes  of  his  style.  The  follow- 
ing much-quoted  passage  from  Studies  is  characteristic  : 

"Some books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some 
few  to  be  chewed  and  digested ;  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be  read 
only  in  parts ;  others  to  be  read,  but  not  curiously ;  and  some  few 
to  be  read  wholly,  and  with  diligence  and  attention." 

(b)    DRAMATIC   LITERATURE 

The  most  important  literature  of  this  period  is  the  drama. 
The  age  itself  was  objective,  adventurous,  dramatic ;  and 
naturally  expressed  itself  in  dramatic  form.  The  theater  be- 
came the  center  of  the  national  life.  It  served  as  newspaper, 
magazine,  and  text  book  of  history,  as  we  have  explained 
elsewhere  (Part  I,  p.  39).  Nearly  every  phase  cf  life  and 
thought  was  reflected  in  the  stage  plays.  Never  has  the 
drama  been  more  sensitive  to  the  influences  of  real  life. 


224  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Revival  of  Classical  Drama  in  the  Schools.  —  Humanism 
had  its  part  to  play  in  this  dramatic  development.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  the  traditions  of  the  classical  drama  had  been 
practically  obliterated.  The  manuscripts  of  the  Greek  and 
of  the  Latin  plays  were  well-nigh  forgotten,  hidden  away, 
as  they  were,  in  the  libraries  of  the  monasteries,  and 
seldom  read.  But  with  the  revival  of  learning,  these 
plays  were  brought  to  light  and  carefully  studied  in  the 
monasteries  and  schools.  It  was  found  that  a  good  way 
to  teach  Latin  to  boys  was  to  have  them  present,  in 
Latin,  scenes  from  Plautus  and  Terence,  or  act  drama- 
tized versions  of  stories  like  that  of  the  Prodigal  Son. 
Thus. originated  "  the  drama  of  the  schools,"  founded  upon 
classical  models. 

"  Ralph  Roister  Doister."  —  The  first  play  in  English  on  the 
classical  models  is  generally  supposed  to  be  Ralph  Roister 
Doister  (1552  or  1553).  It  was  written  by  Nicholas  Udall, 
a  schoolmaster,  to  be  acted  by  the  boys  of  Eton  School. 
It  was  full  of  horse-play  of  the  kind  the  boys  certainly  de- 
lighted in  acting.  Ralph,  the  central  figure,  is  a  conceited 
simpleton  upon  whom  Merrygreeke  and  others  play  numerous 
tricks.  Ralph  wishes  to  marry  a  rich  widow,  and  writes  her 
a  love  letter.  But  Merrygreeke  changes  the  punctuation  and 
reads  the  letter  to  the  lady  in  such  a  way  as  to  alter  the 
entire  meaning.  The  widow  becomes  angry ;  but  Ralph 
persists  in  his  suit.  Finally,  annoyed  beyond  endurance, 
she  arms  her  maidens  with  broomsticks  and  other  household 
articles,  and  drives  him  away  in  great  discomfiture.  The 
play  is  written  on  the  model  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus. 
It  furnished  English  playwrights  an  excellent  example  of 
rapid  dialogue  and  clearly  constructed  plot. 

"  Gammer  Gurton's  Needle,"  another  early  comedy,  is  a 
more  realistic  picture  of  English  peasant  life. 


THE   RENAISSANCE  225 

"Gammer  Gurton  is  patching  the  leather  breeches  of  her  man 
Hodge,  when  Gib,  the  cat,  gets  into  the  milkpan.  While  Gammer 
chases  the  cat  the  family  needle  is  lost,  a  veritable  calamity  in  those 
daj's.  The  whole  houscOiold  is  turned  upsi(l(»  down  and  the  neighbors 
are  dragged  into  the  affair.  X'arious  comical  situations  are  l^rought 
about  by  Dicicon,  a  thieving  vagabond,  who  tells  Gammer  that  her 
neighbor.  Dame  Chatte,  has  taken  her  needle,  and  who  then  hurries 
to  tell  Dame  Chatte  that  she  is  accused  by  Gammer  of  stealing  a 
favorite  rooster.  Naturally  there  is  a  terrible  row  when  the  irate 
old  women  meet  and  misunderstand  each  other.  Diccon  also 
drags  Doctor  Rat,  the  curate,  into  the  quarrel  by  teUing  him  that, 
if  he  will  but  creep  into  Dame  Chatte's  cottage  by  a  hidden  way, 
he  will  find  her  using  the  stolen  needle.  Then  Diccon  secretly 
warns  Dame  Chatte  that  Gammer  Gurton's  man  Hodge  is  coming 
to  steal  her  chickens  ;  and  the  old  woman  hides  in  the  dark  passage 
and  cudgels  the  curate  soundly  with  the  door  bar.  All  the  parties 
are  finally  brought  before  the  justice,  when  Hodge  suddenly  and 
painfully  finds  the  lost  needle  —  which  is  all  the  while  stuck  in 
his  leather  breeches  —  and  the  scene  ends  uproariously  for  both 
audience  and  actors." 

"  Gorboduc."  —  The  first  English  tragedy  along  classical 
lines  was  Gorboduc,  written  by  Thomas  Sackville  and  Thomas 
Norton.  It  was  acted  in  1561(2)  at  the  Inner  Temple,  the 
London  law  school  to  which  the  authors  belonged.  The 
story  is  similar  to  that  of  King  Lear.     The  outline  follows : 

"Gorboduc,  king  of  Brittaine,  divided  his  realme  in  his  lifetime 
to  his  sonnes,  Ferrex  and  Porrex  ;  the  sonues  fell  to  discention ;  the 
yonger  killed  the  elder ;  the  mother,  that  more  dearely  loved  the 
elder,  for  revenge  killed  the  yonger;  the  people,  moved  by  the 
crueltie  of  the  fact,  rose  in  rebellion  and  slew  both  father  and 
mother;  the  nobility  assembled  and  most  terrilily  destroyed  the 
rebels ;  and  after  wardes,  for  want  of  issue  of  the  jjrince,  whereby 
the  succession  of  the  crowne  became  uncertaine,  they  fell  to  ci\nl 
warre,  in  which  both  they  and  many  of  their  issues  were  slain,  and 
the  land  for  a  long  time  almost  desolate  and  miserably  wasted." 
Q 


226  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

The  plan  of  the  play  follows  the  classical  rules  of  Seneca. 
Blood  flows  profusely,  but  not  a  drop  is  shed  upon  the  stage. 
Messengers  relate  the  bloody  deeds,  and  choruses  comment 
upon  them. 

The  Chronicle  History  Play.  —  The  influence  of  the  classical 
drama  was  for  some  time  confined  to  the  schools  and  univer- 
sities. The  plays  performed  by  professional  actors  in  the 
inn-yards  and,  after  1576,  in  theater  buildings,  followed 
native  traditions.  The  popularity  of  the  old  Miracle  play 
had  waned ;  but  the  new  Chronicle  History  play  preserved 
the  old  dramatic  traditions.  The  only  important  change 
was  to  substitute  English  history  for  Bible  history.  Ex- 
amples of  the  Chronicle  History  play  are  The  First  part  of 
the  Contention  betwixt  the  two  famous  houses  of  Yorke  and 
Lancaster,  The  True  Tragedie  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Yorke,  and 
The  Famous  Victories  of  Henry  V.  These  plays  are  re- 
markable, not  for  their  intrinsic  merits,  but  because  the  first 
two  formed  the  basis  of  the  three  parts  of  Henrtj  VI,  at- 
tributed to  Shakespeare,  and  the  third  furnished  suggestions 
for  Shakespeare's  Henry  IV,  Parts  I  and  H,  and  Henry  V. 
Compared  with  Shakespeare's  work,  they  seem  very  crude 
indeed. 

The  Drama  of  Blood.  —  The  same  popular  dramatic 
methods  were  used  in  putting  on  the  stage  every  new  murder 
or  scandal  and  all  the  thrilling  Italian  and  Spanish  stories 
which  now  began  to  crowd  the  London  bookstalls.  A 
veritable  drama  of  blood  grew  up,  very  crude  in  form,  glut- 
ting the  people  with  horrors.  Unlike  Gorboduc,  these  popular 
tragedies  presented  all  the  bloodshed  on  the  stage.  The 
people  demanded  the  representation  of  the  deed  itself.  A 
mere  account  of  it  by  a  messenger  was  too  tame. 

"  The  Spanish  Tragedy."  —  The  most  popular  of  these 
dramas  was,  perhaps.  The  Spanish  Tragedy,  by  Thomas  Kyd, 


THE    RENAISSANCE  227 

who  is  also  supposed  to  have  written  the  first  play  on  the 
Hamlet  story.  The  outline  of  The  Spanish  Tragedy  reveals 
its  general  character.  Andrea,  a  Spanish  nobleman,  is  sent 
to  claim  tribute  from  the  king  of  Portugal.  War  arises  and 
Andrea  is  slain.  His  friend  Horatio  captures  the  Portu- 
guese prince,  Belthazar,  and  returns  to  Spain.  Here  Horatio 
falls  in  love  with  Bel-Imperia,  formerly  the  lady  love  of 
Andrea,  and  is  beloved  by  her  in  return ;  but  her  brother 
Lorenzo,  a  court  villain  of  the  blackest  stamp,  wishing  her 
to  marry  Belthazar,  murders  Horatio  and  hangs  him  to  a 
tree  in  his  father's  garden.  Here  Hieronimo,  the  father, 
discovers  the  body  of  his  son,  and  vows  the  rest  of  his  life 
to  vengeance  upon  the  assassin.  A  play  is  devised  at  court 
in  which  Lorenzo  and  Belthazar  take  part.  At  the  close 
Hieronimo  and  Bel-Lnperia  stab  the  two  traitors  and  after- 
wards put  an  end  to  their  own  lives.  In  this  play  there  are 
six  murders,  three  executions,  two  deaths  in  combat,  and 
three  suicides.  The  popular  playwright  cared  little  for  the 
restraint  of  the  classical  drama. 

The  Popular  Drama  and  the  Drama  of  the  Schools.  — 
There  was  thus  a  marked  contrast  between  the  popular 
drama  and  the  drama  of  the  scholars.  The  popular  play- 
wrights scorned  what  they  considered  the  stupid  pedantry 
in  the  plays  of  the  schoolmen,  and  the  tedious  description 
and  disquisition.  The  scholars,  in  turn,  scoffed,  not  with- 
out reason,  at  the  rustic  buffooneries  and  profuse  bloodshed 
in  which  the  popular  writers  seemed  to  delight.  The  school- 
men represented  art  without  life ;  the  popular  plaj'wrights, 
life  without  art.  There  was  also  a  contrast  in  dramatic 
method.  When  the  popular  pla}'wright  wished  to  dramatize 
a  story,  he  took  it  up  at  the  beginning  and  by  a  series  of 
scenes  with  changes  of  time,  place,  and  action,  developed  it 
gradually  to  its  climax  and  catastrophe.     The  schoolman 


228  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

0 

on  the  contrary,  had  a  tendency  to  hit  at  once  upon  the  crisis 
or  catastrophe,  and  to  present  only  that  confined  to  one  time 
and  place,  bringing  out  what  had  happened  before  or  else- 
where by  a  messenger,  who  relates  it,  or  by  the  chorus,  which 
reflects  upon  it.  The  schoolmen  tried  to  force  upon  the 
popular  playwrights  the  methods  of  the  ancient  dramatists. 
They  pointed  out  the  irregularities  and  inconsistencies  of 
the  popular  dramas  and  laughed  at  their  lack  of  art.^  The 
playwrights,  however,  cared  little  for  this.  They  had  the 
ear  of  the  people  and  would  not  put  up  with  the  restraints 
and  limitations  of  classical  art.  The  real  dramatic  problem 
of  the  time  was  to  take  what  was  best  in  each  of  these  schools 
—  the  art  of  the  one  and  the  vigorous  life  of  the  other  — ■ 
and  unite  them  into  enduring  drama.  This  was  accom- 
plished by  Marlowe,  Shakespeare,  and  their  contemporaries. 
Christopher  Marlowe  (1564-1593)  was  the  son  of  a 
shoemaker,  ]>ut  he  had  the  advantages  of  university  life 
at  Cambridge,  and  when  he  came  up  to  London  to  write 
plays  for  the  public  stage,  he  brought  with  him  a  knowl- 
edge of  classical  dramatic  art.  He  was  forced  to  write  in 
the  popular  style  or  starve.  Yet  he  saw  the  weaknesses  of 
the  popular  style  and  began  at  once  to  modify  it.  To  the 
rambling  stories  he  gave  a  more  definite  unity  than  had  before 
been  attempted.  He  always  came  to  his  work  with  some 
great  central  idea  to  express,  some  master  passion  to  de- 
lineate. In  Tamburlaine,  it  is  the  thirst  for  unlimited  power, 
the  inordinate  desire  of  a  man  in  the  lowest  rank  of  life  for 
the  honors  of  an  absolute  throne.  In  Doctor  Faushis,  it 
is  the  scholar's  desire  for  more  than  mortal  knowledge, 
"  the  climbing  after  knowledge  infinite,"  even  at  the 
risk  of  his  innnortal  soul.  In  The  Jew  of  Malta,  it  is  the 
inordinate  desire  for  gold  —  not  the  sordid  vice  of  avarice, 

1  See  Sidney,  The  Defence  of  Poesie. 


THE    RENAISSANCE  229 

but  a  passion  lifted  by  the  imagination  into  the  realm  of 
poetry.  In  Edward  II,  it  is  again  the  thirst  for  power,  an 
overmastering  passion  which  cares  not  to  count  the  cost. 
The  same  audacity  that  made  Tamburlaine  say, 

"I'll  mouui  the  top  with  my  aspiring  wings 
Although  my  downfall  be  the  darkest  hell," 

the  same  recklessness  that  made  Faustus  exclaim, 

"Had  I  as  many  souls  as  there  be  stars 
I'd  give  them  all  for  Mephitopholis," 

led  Mortimer  in  Edward  II  to  hazard  everything  for  the 
tlirone,  and  to  say  at  last  when  retribution  came  upon  him, 

"Base  fortune  now  I  see  that  in  thy  wheel 
There  is  a  point,  to  which,  when  men  aspire, 
They  tumble  headlong  down ;    that  point  I  touch'd 
And  seeing  there  was  no  place  to  mount  higher 
Why  should  I  grieve  at  my  decUning  fall?" 

Passion  Interest.  —  The  passion  interest  is  often  extrava- 
gant. Tamburlaine,  "  scourging  kingdoms  with  his  con- 
quering sword,"  is  sometimes  absurd.  The  atrocities  of  the 
Jew  of  Malta  are  quite  inhuman.  Yet  to  unify  the  action 
about  one  central  theme  was  a  distinct  dramatic  gain ;  and 
in  his  grand  way  Marlowe  was  sometimes  very  effective. 
Charles  Lamb  says  of  the  catastrophe  scene  in  Edward  II, 
where  the  King,  standing  in  the  "  mire  and  puddle  "  of 
the  dungeon  of  Berkeley  Castle,  gazes  into  the  eyes  of  his 
murderer  with  the  fine  spirit  of  the  Plantagenets :  "  This 
scene  moves  pity  and  terror  beyond  any  scene  ancient  or 
modern  with  which  I  am  familiar." 

Characterization.  —  Some  of  the  characters  lack  individ- 
uality. Tand)urlaine  is  just  the  incarnation  of  brute  force. 
The  Jew  of  Malta  is  not  a  real  Jew ;   he  is  only  the  personi- 


230  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

fication  of  the  popular  hatred  of  the  Jew.  There  is  no 
humanity  about  him  as  there  is  about  Shakespeare's  Shylock, 
Even  Dr.  Faustus  is  not  strongly  individualized.  Yet 
Faustus  is  after  all  a  fine  type  of  medieval  rebel,  pursuing  the 
path  of  forbidden  knowledge  with  unholy  ardor.  Mortimer, 
in  Edward  II,  reminds  us  a  little  of  Shakespeare's  Hotspur. 
And  Edward  II  reveals,  in  the  end,  a  ilistinct  personality, 
weak  in  many  ways,  it  is  true,  but  with  the  genuine  dignity 
and  strength  of  kingship  behind  all  the  folly  and  caprice. 
Marlowe's  characters  lack  the  delicate,  refining  touches  of 
finished  work ;  but  they  are  colossal  figures,  grandly  con- 
ceived and  magnificently  executed. 

Marlowe's  Blank  Verse.  —  Marlowe  also  did  much  for  the 
development  of  blank  verse.  The  schoolmen  had  employed 
lines  of  ten  syllables  without  rime  since  the  time  Gorboduc 
was  written,  but  their  failure  to  produce  varied  and  rhythmi; 
cal  verse  was  conspicuous.  There  was  not  the  jingle  of  the 
recurring  rime,  but  each  line  stood  awkwardly  in  its  place, 
stiff,  monotonous,  isolated.  Marlowe  made  the  thought 
flow  on  from  line  to  line  unimpeded  ;  balanced  phrase  against 
phrase ;  built  up  periods  as  in  prose  ;  and  by  a  variety  of 
cadences  gave  to  the  verse  a  changing  melody.  Some  of 
his  later  lines  would  not  seem  out  of  place  in  Shakespeare. 

Periods  of  Shakespeare's  Work.  —  Shakespeare  carried 
on  and  developed  the  Marlowe  tradition,  adding  to  dignity 
and  strength,  delicacy  and  humor.  The  year  1600  divides 
Shakespeare's  work  almost  exactly  in  the  middle.  For  ten 
or  twelve  years  before,  and  for  ten  or  twelve  years  after 
1600,  he  was  closely  connected  with  the  London  public 
theater  both  as  plajn^-right  and  actor.  These  two  periods 
in  turn  divide  themselves  almost  equally,  making  four  well- 
defined  periods  in  the  development  of  Shakespeare's  art  as  a 
dramatist.     The  first  period  was  a  time  of  apprenticeship 


THE   RENAISSANCE  231 

and  experiment,  when  he  was  working  out  from  under  the 
influence  of  other  men,  and  feehng  his  way  along  new  lines 
of  dramatic  work.  Romeo  and  Juliet  and  A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  belong  to  this  period.  Professor  Dowden 
characterizes  this  time  by  the  catch  phrase  "  In  the  Work- 
shop." During  the  second  period  (1595-1601)  Shakespeare 
was  enlarging  his  experience  of  the  world,  delighting  in  its 
pageantry,  analyzing  its  forces,  formulating  its  laws,  and 
learning  to  express  himself  with  freedom  of  style  and  mastery 
of  dramatic  form.  It  is  the  great  ol^jective  period  of  the 
poet's  life.  Professor  Dowden  characterizes  it  by  the 
phrase  "  In  the  World."  Here  belong  Henry  V  and  Twelfth 
Night  as  typical  plays.  In  the  third  period  (1601-1608) 
Shakespeare  was  concerned  with  the  deeper  experiences  of 
life,  not  the  pageantry  of  the  world  without,  but  the  prob- 
lems of  the  world  within.  He  wrestled  with  the  problem  of 
the  inner  life,  the  motives  for  conduct,  the  passions  of  the 
human  heart.  Professor  Dowden  calls  this  period  "  Out  of 
the  Depths."  To  it  belong  the  great  tragedies,  of  which 
Macbeth  and  Hamlet  are  examples.  In  the  fourth  period 
(1608-1612)  the  poet  worked  away  from  this  dark  and  som- 
ber tragedy,  from  experiences  of  questioning  and  tumlilt  and 
passion,  into  a  serene  philosophic  calm.  "On  the  Heights" 
is  Professor  Dowden 's  phrase  for  this  period.  Typical  plays 
are  The  Tempest  and  Winter's  Tale.  "  In  the  Workshop," 
"  In  the  World,"  "  Out  of  the  Depths,"  "  On  the  Heights  "  ; 
apprenticeship,  objective  experience,  subjective  analysis, 
philosophic  serenity  —  this  represents  a  bird's-eye  view  of 
Shakespeare's  mental  development.  The  following  table 
classifies  the  poet's  works  according  to  the  four  periods : 

First  Period,  Early  Experiment.  Venus  and  Adonis, 
Rape  of  Lucrece,  1594 ;  Titus  Andronicus,  Henry  VI  (three 
parts),  1590-1591;    Love's  Labour's  Lost,  1590;    Comedy  of 


232  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Errors,  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  1591-1592;  Richard  III, 
1593 ;  Richard  II,  King  John,  1594-1595 ;  Sonnets,  1593- 
1598. 

Second  Period,  Development.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream,  1595  ;  Merchant  of  Venice,  Henry  IV 
(first  part),  1596;  Henry  IV  (second  part),  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  1597 ;  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  1598 ;  As  You 
Like  It,  Henry  V,  1599. 

Third  Period,  Maturity  and  Gloom.  Twelfth  Night,  1600  ; 
Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Julius  Ccesar,  Hamlet,  Troilus  and 
Cressida,  1601-1602;  AWs  Well  That  Ends  Well,  Measure  for 
Measure,  1603;  Othello,  1604;  King  Lear,  1Q05;  Macbeth, 
1606;    Antony  and  Cleopatra,  Timon  of  Athens,  1607. 

Fourth  Period,  Philosophic  Serenity.  Coriolanus,  Pericles, 
1608;  Cymbeline,  1609;  Winter's  Tale,  1610-1611;  The 
Tempest,  1611;    Henry  VIII. 

Shakespeare  was  not  a  genius  who  wrote  as  well  at  the 
beginning  as  at  the  end  of  his  career.  He  had  to  learn  his 
art  just  as  other  men  do.  He  learned,  however,  through 
experiment  and  not  by  writing  from  models ;  for  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  Marlowe's  work  he  had  in  the  plays  then 
in  vogue  in  the  public  theaters  only  crude  models  to  work 
from,  and  the  classical  plays  of  the  schools  were  not  adapted 
to  the  popular  taste.  His  work  was  to  develop  dramatic 
types  which  were  both  successful  stage  plays  and  pieces  of 
literary  art.  The  principal  Shakespearean  types  are  his- 
tory, comedy,  and  tragedy.  All  three  existed  in  a  crude 
form  when  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage.  He  developed 
each  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 

The  History  Play,  or,  more  strictly,  the  Chronicle  History 
play,  never  shook  off  the  older  conventional  form,  even 
under  Shakespeare's  hand.  The  serious  main  plot  and  the 
comic  underplot  remained  side  by  side  without  a  connection 


FropiTty  of  the  Melropalitan  Museum  of  Art. 
Portia. 
After  the  painting  by  John  Everett  Millais. 


THE    RENAISSANCE  233 

vital  enough  to  give  real  dramatio  unity  to  the  play  as  a 
whole ;  and  the  dialogue  in  the  serious  main  plot  never 
became  acting  dialogue  in  a  true  dramatic  sense ;  to  the  end, 
it  retained  its  narrative  and  oratorical  qualities.  Yet  instead 
of  the  tedious  narrative,  bombastic  declamation,  and  crude 
buffoonery  of  the  early  plays,  Shakespeare  developed  bril- 
liant oratory  and  spirited  declamation  in  the  main  plot,  and 
a  genuine  comedy  of  mann(n-s  in  the  underplot.  The  por- 
trayal of  character,  too,  finds  full  development.  Henry  V 
is  Shakespeare's  ideal  man  of  action.  Falstaff  is  still  con- 
sidered the  greatest  comic  character  in  literature. 

Comedy  had  existed  before  Shakespeare  as  a  distinct 
dramatic  type  in  the  plays  of  John  Lyly,  with  their  clever 
dialogue ;  in  the  mask  entertainments  of  the  court,  full  of 
dancing  and  singing;  and  in  the  classical  comedies  like 
Ralph  Roister  Doister,  notable  for  their  comic  situations. 
Shakespeare  doubled  the  complications  of  the  classical 
dramas  in  his  Comedy  of  Errors ;  utilized  all  the  mask  effects 
in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  and  The  Tempest;  and,  in 
such  plays  as  Twelfth  Night  and  Much  Ado  About  Nothing, 
developed  the  type  known  as  Romantic  Comed}-,  employing 
all  the  sources  of  comic  effect  in  genuinely  clever  dialogue, 
well-conceived  situations,  and  carefully  constructed  plots. 

Tragedy.  —  The  drama  of  blood  was  elevated  by  Shake- 
speare into  real  tragedy.  In  his  plays,  the  emphasis  is  no 
longer  upon  the  shedding  of  blood  for  the  mere  horror  of  it, 
but  upon  the  motives  for  action  which  lie  deep  in  the  pas- 
sionate heart.  He  treats  the  very  essence  of  tragedy  in  the 
struggle  between  the  individual  and  his  surroundings,  the 
conflict  between  will  and  fate,  the  strife  between  the  "  musts  " 
and  the  "  can'ts  "  in  human  life.  (See  Part  I,  p.  46.)  When 
the  individual  will  says,  "  I  must,"  and  the  external  forces 
of  life  say,  "  You  can't,"  we  have  the  basis  for  the  tragic 


234  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

clash  which  Shakespeare  made  his  plays  interpret.  Mac- 
beth, Hamlet,  and  King  Lear  are  not  mere  dramas  of  blood, 
but  very  searching  interpretations  of  life. 

Ben  Jonson's  Tragedies.  —  Ben  Jonson  (1573?-1637) 
was  Shakespeare's  greatest  contemporary  and  rival.  He  was 
of  humble  birth,  but  he  had  more  schooling  than  Shake- 
speare, and  became,  in  the  end,  the  most  learned  dramatist 
of  the  time.  He  set  hirhself  against  what  he  considered  the 
imaginative  extravagance  of  his  contemporaries  and  culti- 
vated the  restraint  of  the  classicists.  In  tragedy,  particularly, 
he  took  up  the  line  of  development  which  had  been  begun  in 
Gorboduc  and  tried  to  convert  the  popular  drama  to  the 
ideas  of  Seneca.  Sejanus  and  Cataline  are  his  important 
historical  tragedies.  They  are  very  learned ;  they  are 
scrupulously  accurate  in  the  matter  of  historical  details ; 
they  conform  in  general  to  the  classical  "  unities."  The 
characters,  however,  are  not  so  genuinely  human  as  are 
Shakespeare's  men  and  women.  The  style  is  not  so  direct 
and  strong. 

Jonson's  Comedies.  — Jonson's  best  comedies  are:  Every- 
man in  his  Humour,  The  Silent  Woman,  Volpone,  The 
Alchemist,  and  Bartholomew  Fair.  They  illustrate  "  the 
comedy  of  humors."  The  author  seizes  upon  some  eccen- 
tricity of  character,  some  peculiar  trait  of  human  nature, 
and  emphasizes  that,  neglecting  the  natural  complexities 
of  character.  Volpone,  for  example,  is  a  study  of  avarice ; 
The  Alchemist,  a  study  of  quackery.  The  Silent  Woman 
is  particularly  noteworthy.  The  leading  character's  special 
peculiarity  or  "  humor  "  is  a  horror  of  noise.  This  person, 
Morose  by  name,  lives  in  a  street  too  narrow  to  admit 
carriages ;  he  pads  the  door ;  he  puts  mattresses  on  the 
stairs ;  he  forces  his  servants  to  go  about  in  thick  stockings. 
In  a  hasty  moment,  he  resolves  to  marry  in  order  to  keep 


THE    RENAISSANCE  235 

his  money  away  from  a  nephew,  Eugenic,  whom  he  disHkes. 
He  beheves  his  wife  to  be  a  rare  silent  woman ;  but  she  finds 
her  voice  immediately  after  the  marriage,  talks  loudly, 
reforms  the  household,  and  drives  Morose  in  distraction  to 
the  garret.  Morose  finally  agrees  to  give  the  nephew  £500 
a  year  to  be  released  from,  his  torment.  The  silent  woman 
turns  out  to  be  a  boy  in  disguise.  The  play  is  full  of  bright, 
quick  movement  and  splendid  fun. 

Jonson's  Masks.  —  Jonson  was  also  famous  as  a  writer  of 
masks.  They  were  performed  mostly  before  the  court  of 
James  I  at  Whitehall.  Mythological  and  allegorical  scenes 
were  presented  with  magnificent  costuming  and  against  a 
background  of  elaborate  scenery  designed  by  the  court  arch- 
itect, Inigo  Jones.  The  best  of  these  masks  are  The  Masque 
of  Beauty,  The  Hue  and  Cry  after  Cupid,  and  The  Masque 
of  Queens. 

Thomas  Heywood  was  a  dramatist  of  whose  life  as  a  writer 
little  is  known  except  that  it  was  long,  extending  from  the 
time  of  Marlowe  to  the  closing  of  the  theaters  in  1642.  He 
has  been  called  a  "  dramatic  journalist,"  because  he  tried  to 
do  through  the  drama  what  is  now  accomplished  through 
the  newspaper  and  the  lecture.  His  most  famous  play  is  a 
drama  of  simple  domestic  life,  A  Woman  killed  loith  Kind- 
ness. Domestic  life  mixed  with  adventure  is  exemplified  in 
The  Fair  Maid  of  the  West;  it  contains  pictures  of  life  in  an 
English  seaport  town  and  some  spirited,  melodramatic  sea 
fighting. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  —  Thomas  Beaumont  (1584- 
1616)  and  John  Fletcher  (1579-1625)  worked  together; 
over  fifty  plays  bear  their  joint  names.  Both  were  high 
born  and  well  educated,  though  not  classicists  in  the  sense 
that  Ben  Jonson  was.  The  partnership  worked  so  well  that 
the  critics  have  not  been  able  to  determine  exactly  what 


236  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

part  of  the  work  is  Beaumont's  and  what  part  Fletcher's. 
The  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  Beaumont  seems  to  have 
had  the  deeper  and  more  serious  imagination  and  a  greater 
power  of  dramatic  construction.  Flt>tcher's  gifts  were  lyric 
sweetness  and  sentiment  and  a  fluency  of  style.  Philaster 
is  their  most  famous  joint  product.  It  treats  c"  a  jealous 
lover  and  a  faithful  lady  love,  who  follows  him  in  the  disguise 
of  a  page.     The  play  is  thoroughly  romantic  in  tone. 

"  The  Faithful  Shepherdess."  —  Beaumont  died  in  1616, 
leaving  Fletcher  to  work  on  alone  until  1625.  Of  the  plays 
which  Fletcher  wrote  alone,  The  Faithful  Shepherdess  is  the 
most  noteworthy.  It  is  a  pastoral  play  of  rare  beauty. 
The  songs  are  particularly  exquisite.  Milton  took  from  this 
play  many  hints  for  his  Comus. 

Middleton  and  Webster.  —  Thomas  Middleton  (1570?- 
1627)  and  John  Webster  reverted  to  the  old  "  tragedy  of 
blood  "  in  the  style  of  Kyd  and  Marlowe.  Shakespeare  had 
lifted  this  type  into  real  spiritual  tragedy  in  such  plays  as 
King  Lear  and  Hamlet,  but  Middleton  and  Webster  did  not 
maintain  Shakespeare's  high  standard.  They  relied,  for  the 
most  part,  upon  the  mere  physical  horror  of  the  graveyard 
and  the  madhouse.  Middleton's  Changeling,  his  best-known 
play,  is  sensational  and  repulsive.  The  situations  are  un- 
natural and  do  violence  to  the  moral  sense.  Webster's 
greatest  plays,  The  White  Devil  and  The  Duche:.s  of  Malfi, 
are  crowded  with  physical  horrors.  In  spite  of  Middleton's 
mastery  of  language  and  Webster's  power  of  conceiving 
character,  in  spite  of  occasional  fine  outbursts  of  poetry  on 
the  part  of  each,  their  plays  show  clearly  the  dramatic 
decadence  which  soon  went  from  bad  to  worse  in  the  plays 
of  Ford,  Massinger,  and  Shirley. 

Conclusion. —  Indeed,  after  the  death  of  Shakespeare,  the 
drama  shows  a  steady  decline.     This  was  partly  due  to  the 


THE   RENAISSANCE  237 

Puritan  opposition,  antl  partly  the  cause  of  that  opposition. 
In  Shakespeare's  time,  in  spite  of  the  patronage  of  Elizabeth, 
the  Puritans  had  been  able  to  keep  the  theaters  outside  the 
city  limits  of  London.  And  after  the  accession  of  James, 
when  the  court  became  more  corrupt  and  the  Puritans  more 
aggressive,  tlie  theater  became  the  victim  of  the  changing 
age.  More  and  more  it  had  to  make  its  appeal  to  the  in- 
creasingly corrupt  taste  of  the  court,  and  consequently  the 
Puritan  opposition  became  even  more  justifiable  and  more 
effective.  The  theaters  were  closed  in  1642,  and  not  opened 
again  until  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  in  1660. 

Suggested  Readings  ' 

Spenser:  The  Faerie  Queene,  Book  I. 

Bacon:  Essm/s. 

Palgrave :  Golden  Treasury  of  Songs  and  Lyrics,  Book  I. 

Shakespeare:  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Henry  IV  {first  part), 
Henry  V,  As  You  Like  It,  Twelfth  Night,  Julius  Ccesar,  Hamlet, 
Macbeth,  The  Tempest. 

Fletcher:  The  Faithful  Shepherdess.     (The  Temple  Dramatists.) 

1  Except  where  special  editions  are  mentioned,  the  books  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Pocket  Series  of  English  Classics  published  by  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE   PURITAN  AGE 

The  Puritan  Age.  —  The  years  which  followed  the  death  of 
Shakespeare  were  years  of  national  division,  controversy, 
and  conflict.  Elizabeth  had  ruled  firmly  but  wisely,  and 
had  kept  her  people  reasonably  well  united  and  loyal.  King 
James,  however,  was  of  a  different  temperament :  ridiculous, 
cowardly,  tyrannical.  He  insisted  at  all  times  upon  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  maintaining  that  the 
people  had  no  right  to  interfere  with  his  actions,  however 
unjust  those  actions  might  be.  He  and  his  son,  Charles  I, 
came  into  sharp  conflict  with  the  leaders  of  the  people,  es- 
pecially with  the  Puritans.  The  different  views  of  life  repre- 
sented by  the  court  party  and  the  Puritan  party  had  been 
marked  even  in  Elizabeth's  time.  In  the  time  of  James  and 
Charles  the  two  parties  came  into  open  conflict,  resulting 
in  civil  war  (1642-1648).  The  Puritans  under  Oliver 
Cromwell  were  victorious,  Charles  I  was  beheaded,  and  the 
Stuart  family  was  driven  into  exile.  Such  troublesome  times 
are  not  favorable  to  great  literature. 

The  Cavalier  Poets.  —  There  were  three  classes  of  people 
in  the  state,  however,  whose  ideas  of  life  found  their  way  into 
literature :  the  court  party,  the  party  of  the  established 
church,  and  the  Puritan  party.  To  the  court  party  belonged 
the  so-called  Cavalier  poets,  lyric  poets  who  wrote  in  a  light, 
fanciful  vein  on  rather  trivial  subjects.     The  most  important 

238 


THE   PURITAN   AGE  239 

of  these  poets  were  Carew,  Suckling,  and  Lovelace.  A 
characteristic  example  of  their  poetry  is  Lovelace's  To 
Althea  from  Prison.     The  first  and  last  stanzas  follow : 

"  When  love  with  unconfiued  wings 

Hovers  within  my  gates, 
And  my  diAdne  Althea  brings 

To  whisper  at  the  grates ; 
When  I  he  tangled  in  her  hair 

And  fetter'd  to  her  eye. 
The  Gods  that  wanton  in  the  air 

Kaiow  no  such  liljerty 

***** 
Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make, 

Nor  iron  bars  a  cage  ; 
Minds  imiocent  and  quiet  take 

That  for  an  hermitage  ; 
If  I  have  freedom  in  my  love 

And  in  my  soul  am  free, 
Angels  alone,  that  soar  above, 

Enjoy  such  liberty." 

Robert  Herrick  (1591-1674)  may  also  be  classified  with 
the  Cavalier  poets,  though  he  was  also  a  religious  poet  and 
a  poet  of  Nature.  The  Litany  is  his  famous  religious  poem, 
somber  and  melancholy  in  tone ;  Corinna's  Maying  is  his 
most  notable  lyric  of  country  life.  His  lighter  verse,  which 
links  him  to  the  Cavalier  group,  is  well  illustrated  by  his 
Counsel  to  Young  Girls. 

"  Gather  ye  rosebuds  while  ye  may, 
Old  Time  is  still  a-flying. 
And  this  same  flower  that  smiles  to-day 
To-morrow  will  be  dying. 

**  The  glorious  Lamp  of  Heaven,  the  Sun, 
The  higher  he's  a-getting 


240  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

The  sooner  wdll  his  race  be  run 
And  nearer  he's  to  setting. 

"  The  age  is  best  which  is  the  first, 

When  youth  and  blood  are  warmer, 
But  being  spent,  the  worse,  and  worst 
Times,  still  succeed  the  former. 

"  Then  be  not  coy,  but  use  your  time ; 
And  while  ye  may,  go  marry : 
For  having  lost  but  once  your  prime, 
You  may  forever  tarry." 

The  Metaphysical  School.  —  Light  and  fanciful  lyric 
poetry,  however,  did  not  represent  the  prevailing  mood  of 
the  age.  The  chief  interest  was  in  religion  of  a  mystical  and 
melancholy  kind.  The  literature  of  both  the  Anglicans  and 
the  Puritans  represent  it,  though  the  Puritan  habit  of  mind 
was  not  distinctly  literary.  Among  the  religious  poets, 
the  most  important  were  Donne,  Herbert,  and  Vaughan. 
With  these  may  be  classed  Crashaw,  a  Roman  Catholic. 
John  Donne  was  the  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in  London,  a  preacher 
of  power,  and  a  poet  with  flashes  of  genius.  "  His  poetry  is 
full  of  strange,  interrupted  music  and  of  vivid  passion  which 
breaks  in  jets  and  flashes  through  a  veil  of  obscure  thought 
and  tortured  imagery.  In  these  moments  of  illumination,  it 
becomes  wonderfully  poignant  and  direct,  heart-searching  in 
its  simple  human  accents,  with  an  originality  and  force  for 
which  we  look  in  vain  among  the  clear  and  fluent  melodies 
of  Elizabethan  lyrics."  ^  The  ordinary  reader,  however, 
finds  Donne  obscure.  His  poetry  is  full  of  fanciful  conceits, 
strained  metaphors,  and  difficult  comparisons.  So  intellect- 
ually subtle  is  the  style  that  Dr.  Johnson  nicknamed  Donne 
and  his  followers  "the  metaphysical  school." 

'  Moody  and  Lovett,  A  History  of  English  Literature,  p.  144. 


THE   PURITAN   AGE  241 

Herbert  and  Crashaw.  —  The  greatest  of  Donne's  fol- 
lowers were  George  Herbert  (1593-1632)  and  Riehard 
Crashaw  (1613?-1()50?).  Herbert's  poetry  is  prevaiHngly 
intellectual,  though  of  earnest  and  sincere  piety;  Crashaw's 
is  ecstatic  and  mystical.  Crashaw  had  the  religious  fervor 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  controversies  of  the  seventeenth 
century  naturally  drove  him  back  to  the  mother  church. 
His  most  characteristic  poems  are  The  Flaming  Heart  and 
Hymn  to  Saint  Theresa.  Herbert  was  a  typical  church  of 
England  man.  His  volume  of  poems,  The  Temple,  reflects 
the  prevailing  spiritual  agitation  and  melancholy  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  Gifts  of  God  is  one  of  his  most 
notable  poems : 

"  When  God  at  first  made  Man, 
Having  a  glass  of  blessings  standing  by ; 
Let  us  (said  He)  pour  on  him  all  we  can  : 
Let  the  world's  riches,  which  dispersed  lie. 
Contract  into  a  span. 

"  So  strength  first  made  a  way ; 
Then  beauty  flow'd,  then  wisdom,  honor,  pleasure ; 
When  ahnost  all  was  out,  God  made  a  stay, 
Perceivdng  that  alone,  of  all  his  treasure, 
Rest  in  the  bottom  lay. 

"  For  if  I  should  (said  He) 
Bestow  this  jewel  also  on  My  creature. 
He  would  adore  My  gifts  instead  of  Me, 
And  rest  in  Nature,  not  the  God  of  Nature, 
So  both  should  losers  be. 

"  Yet  let  him  keep  the  rest. 
But  keep  them  with  repining  restlessness. 
Let  liim  be  rich  and  wearj',  that  at  least. 
If  goodness  lead  him  not,  yet  weariness 

May  toss  him  to  My  breast." 


242  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Abraham  Cowley  (1618-1667)  also  requires  mention  in 
connection  with  the  "  metaphysical  school."  His  contem- 
poraries considered  him  the  greatest  of  poets,  though  pos- 
terity has  not  confirmed  the  judgment.  The  Mistress,  a 
series  of  love  poems,  and  Davideis,  an  heroic  poem  of  King 
David  of  Israel,  were  once  famous,  but  are  now  rarely  read. 
He  was  much  quoted,  however,  in  the  Classical  Age ;  and 
he  gave  his  name  to  the  verse  form  known  as  the  "  Cowleyan 
Ode,"  "  a  series  of  verse  groups  of  unequal  length  and  ir- 
regular structure,"  adapted  from  the  old  Pindaric  ode. 

Burton's  "Anatomy  of  Melancholy."  —  Among  the  prose 
writers,  the  most  important  were  Robert  Burton  (1577- 
1640),  Jeremy  Taylor  (1613-1667),  and  Sir  Thomas  Browne 
(1605-1682).  Robert  Burton's  famous  book.  The  Anatomy 
of  Melancholy,  analyzes  the  prevailing  national  mood  as  a 
disease.  It  discusses  the  causes,  the  manifestations,  and  the 
cure  of  melancholy.  Part  I  treats  a  somewhat  heterogeneous 
list  of  causes:  (1)  God,  (2)  spirits,  devils,  etc.,  (3)  witches 
and  magicians,  (4)  old  age,  (5)  heredity,  (6)  bad  diet,  (7)  idle- 
ness, (8)  anger,  (9)  ambition,  (10)  study,  etc.  Part  II  dis- 
cusses the  treatment  of  these  various  causes.  Part  III  is 
devoted  entirely  to  the  causes  and  cures  of  love  melan- 
choly. 

Jeremy  Taylor.  —  Taylor's  most  influential  work  was 
Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,  a  noble  and  tolerant  book 
widely  read  both  in  Taylor's  own  day  and  since.  Hazlitt 
says  of  it :  "  It  is  a  divine  pastoral.  He  writes  to  the  faith- 
ful followers  of  Christ  as  a  shepherd  pipes  to  his  flock.  ,  .  . 
He  makes  life  a  procession  to  the  grave,  but  crowns  it  with 
garlands,  and  rains  sacrificial  roses  on  its  path."  Taylor 
has  been  called  "  the  Shakespeare  of  divines,"  and  "  a  kind 
of  Spenser  in  a  cassock."  His  style  is  richly  poetic  and 
melodious,  though  often  over-fanciful  and  diffuse. 


THE    PURITAN    AGE  243 

Sir  Thomas  Browne:  "  Religio  Medici"  —  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  is  known  chiefly  for  his  Religio  Medici,  an  expression 
of  his  own  personal  religious  beliefs.  The  book  is  melan- 
choly and  mystical,  like  most  other  books  of  the  period. 
"  He  (Browne)  loves  to  stand  before  the  face  of  the  Eternal 
and  the  Infinite  until  the  shows  of  life  fade  away,  and  he  is 
filled  with  a  passionate  quietude  and  humility."  His  grand 
and  solemn  style  is  at  times  very  impressive.  Some  mod- 
ern readers,  however,  consider  it  "  desultory  and  magnilo- 
quent." 

Walton's  "  The  Compleat  Angler." —  Isaak  Walton  (1593- 
1683)  is  a  writer  who  defies  classification.  Instead  of  dis- 
cussing melancholy,  like  most  of  his  contemporaries,  he 
found  a  practical  cure  for  it.  He  went  fishing.  His  book, 
The  Compleat  Angler,  has  no  touches  of  melancholy.  The 
book  begins  in  the  form  of  conversations  between  a  falconer, 
a  hunter,  and  an  angler ;  but  the  falconer  soon  drops  out  of 
the  story,  and  the  angler,  true  to  nature,  does  most  of  the 
talking.  The  style  is  charming,  showing  a  close  and  sympa- 
thetic observation  of  woods  and  fields  and  streams,  a  love  of 
simple  and  wholesome  pleasures,  and  a  kindliness  of  spirit 
as  delightful  as  it  is  rare.  The  angler  says,  "  I  envy  not  him 
that  eats  better  meat  than  I  do ;  nor  him  that  is  richer,  or 
that  wears  better  clothes  than  I  do ;  I  envy  nobody  but  him, 
and  him  only,  that  catches  more  fish  than  I  do."  This 
book  seems  out  of  place  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  Puritans.  —  The  stern  temper  of  the  Puritan  mind 
would  seem  antagonistic  to  literature ;  yet  two  of  the  most 
widely  known  writers  of  the  time  were  Puritans.  Milton 
and  Bunyan  are  still  read  by  people  who  hardly  know  the 
names  of  the  other  writers  of  the  period.  Macaulay  has 
pointed  out  that  Milton's  cast  of  mind  was  not  strictly 
Puritan.     He  belonged  to  the  Puritan  faith,  and  had  the 


244  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

intense  religious  enthusiasm  and  exaltation  of  the  Puritans ; 
but  he  was  "perfectly  free  from  the  contagion  of  their  fran- 
tic delusions,  their  savage  manners,  their  ludicrous  jargon, 
their  scorn  of  science,  and  their  aversion  to  pleasure."  He 
hated  tyranny,  but  he  possessed  the  mental  graces  of  the 
Cavalier.  His  tastes  were  refined  ;  his  sense  of  the  value  of 
literatu.^  strong.  He  united  in  himself  the  virtues  of  the 
Puritan  and  the  graces  of  the  cavalier. 

Milton's  First  Period. —  Milton's  work  naturally  divides  it- 
self into  three  periods :  (1)  the  period  before  the  outbreak  of 
civil  war  in  1642 ;  (2)  the  period  of  the  Revolution  and  the 
Commonwealth  from  1642-1660,  and  (3)  the  period  imme- 
diately following  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  in  1660.  To 
the  first  period  belong  the  Minor  Poems,  notably  L'  Allegro, 
II  Penseroso,  Comus,  and  Lycidas.  After  receiving  his  de- 
gree from  Cambridge,  Milton  retired  to  a  country  place  at 
Horton,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  pursuit  of  poetry.  The 
graceful  and  charming  qualities  of  his  mind  here  found  free 
play.  L'  Allegro  and  //  Penseroso  represent  two  moods  of 
the  poet,  the  keen  delight  in  mirth  of  a  light  yet  wholesome 
character,  and  the  more  serious  delight  in  reflection,  music, 
and  religious  musing.  Comus,  a  mask,  shows  also  the 
brighter  side  of  Milton's  character,  the  side  which  is  least 
Puritanic. 

Lycioas  is  universally  considered  one  of  his  most  finished 
poems.  It  is  a  lament  for  the  death  of  a  college  acquaint- 
ance, Edward  King,  who  was  drowned  in  the  Irish  Channel. 
Its  literary  form  is  the  conventional  pastoral.  Milton  and 
King  are  represented  as  shepherds  who  tend  their  sheep  and 
play  rustic  music.  But  the  poem  is  not  intended  to  repre- 
sent real  country  life ;  it  is  only  a  translation  of  the  experi- 
ence of  the  two  into  pastoral  imagery.  For  instance  when 
Milton  says : 


THE   PURITAN    AGE  245 

"For  we  were  nursed  upon  the  self-same  hill 
Fed  the  same  flock,  by  fountain,  shade  and  rill," 

he  means  that  he  and  King  went  to  college  together  (Christ's 
College,  Cambridge)  and  engaged  in  the  same  studies  and 
pursuits.  Every  detail  in  the  poem  does  not  have  a  hidden 
meaning,  but  the  conventional  pastoral  imagery  is  used  in  a 
general  way  to  express  the  experience  of  the  two  men. 
Milton  also  expresses  in  the  poem  his  idea  of  the  state  of 
literature  and  of  the  church.  The  poem  also  illustrates  the 
rich  color  and  varied  music  of  Milton's  early  verse. 

The  Second  Period.  "  Areopagitica."  —  During  the 
second  period,  Alilton  wrote  no  poetry  except  occasional 
sonnets,  for  much  of  his  time  was  occupied  with  political 
controversies.  He  held  the  position  of  Secretary  for  Foreign 
Tongues  under  the  Puritan  government.  Most  of  his  official 
writing  was  in  Latin.  Only  occasionally  did  he  produce  a 
piece  of  genuine  English  prose  literature.  Such  is  the  Areo- 
pagitica,  a  vigorous  plea  for  freedom  of  the  press,  written  in 
an  elaborate,  highly  figurative,  and  melodious  style.  As  a 
whole  this  period  of  Milton's  life  has  comparatively  little 
literary  significance.  The  writing  of  one  of  his  controversial 
pamphlets  made  him  blind. 

The  Third  Period.  —  To  the  third  period  belong  Paradise 
Lost,  Paradise  Regained,  and  Samson  Agonistes.  Samson 
Agonistes  is  a  tragedy  in  the  Greek  manner,  based  on  the 
story  in  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  Judges.  Paradise  Regained 
treats  of  Christ's  temptation  in  the  wilderness  (Matthew  iv). 
Neither  of  them  equals  in  importance  Paradise  Lost,  Milton's 
greatest  achievement. 

"  Paradise  Lost."  —  From  boyhood,  Milton  felt  himself 
dedicated  to  the  task  of  writing  a  great  literary  masterpiece, 
and  the  theme  of  Paradise  Lost  was  in  his  mind  for  many 
years.     At  first  he  thought  of  making  a  drama  of  it  and 


246  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

sketched  out  a  plan  on  the  Greek  model ;  but  this  idea  was 
abandoned  for  the  epic  form  before  he  had  written  much  on 
the  theme.  Paradise  Lost  is  one  of  the  greatest  poems  in 
the  English  language.  To  be  sure,  the  idea  of  the  universe 
with  the  earth  in  the  center,  surrounded  by  a  series  of  con- 
centric spheres  in  which  the  planets  and  stars  are  fixed,  is 
totally  wrong,  as  possibly  INIilton  knew ;  but  the  poem  re- 
mains great  because  its  imagination  is  so  wonderful  and  its 
verse  so  nearly  perfect.  Milton  thought  his  minor  poems 
were  nothing  but  literary  exercises  compared  with  Paradise 
Lost.  Of  this  poem  he  thought  highly,  though  he  aimed 
to  be  satisfied  with  nothing  short  of  perfection.  No  one 
since  has  been  able  to  sustain  so  grand  a  style. 

A  Literary  Epic.  —  Paradise  Lost  is  a  literary  epic  like 
Virgil's  /Eneid,  as  distinguished  from  a  popular  epic  like 
The  Iliad  or  Beowulf.  It  is  not  simple  story,  not  a  direct 
picture  of  life.     Milton  has  a  problem  to  discuss.     He  says : 

"What  in  me  is  dark 
Illumine  ;   what  is  low  raise  and  support  ; 
That  to  the  highth  of  this  great  argument 
I  may  assert  Eternal  Pro^^dence 
And  justify  the  ways  of  God  to  men." 

The  poem  is  a  great  artist's  idea  about  the  problem  of  evil 
in  the  world.  It  treats  the  revolt  of  Satan  and  the  angels 
from  God  ;  their  overthrow  and  the  casting  of  them  into  Hell ; 
their  plan  of  revenge  by  corrupting  man,  whom  God  had 
created  and  placed  in  paradise ;  the  temptation  and  fall  of 
Adam  and  Eve ;  and  the  expulsion  from  paradise.  At  the 
end  the  outcasts  are  comforted  b,y  the  promise  of  atonement 
through  the  coming  of  Christ.  Adam  is  the  hero  ;  but  Satan 
is  the  more  interesting  character,  perhaps  because  he  is 
more  human. 


THE    PURITAN    AGE  247 

The  Greatness  of  the  Poem.  —  The  poem  is  conceived  and 
executed  on  a  grand  scale.  The  scene  of  th(>  action  com- 
prises heaven,  hell,  and  the  entire  universe  between.  The 
characters  are  God,  the  angels,  fallen  spirits,  and  man.  The 
imagery  is  vivid  and  sublim(> ;  the  flow  of  the  verse,  stately 
and  harmonious.  Tlu^  lasting  interest  in  the  poem  lies  in 
the  colossal  images,  exalted  thought,  and  wonderful  melody. 

"Pilgrim's  Progress."  —  John  Bunyan  (1628-1688)  was 
another  Puritan  who  wrote  enduring  literature.  He  was  a 
tinker  by  trade,  and  had  little  or  no  education;  but  he 
knew  his  Bible  almost  by  heart,  and  was  an  artist  by  instinct. 
His  religious  experience  was  exceedingly  vivid  and  dramatic. 
Intense  religious  feeling,  vital  imagination,  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  simple  style  of  the  Bible  made  him  a  great 
writer.  Pilgrim's  Progress  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  alle- 
gories ever  written.  All  the  difficulties  and  triumphs  of  the 
Christian  life  are  here  represented  in  story.  At  the  beginning. 
Christian  sets  out  from  the  city  of  Destruction  to  make 
his  way  to  the  Holy  City.  He  carries  on  his  back  the  burden 
of  his  sins  and  fears.  Evangelist  tells  him  the  way  to  go  and 
he  pushes  onward  in  spite  of  the  petitions  of  his  family,  his 
neighbors,  and  his  friends.  Scene  after  scene  follows, 
picturing  spiritual  experiences.  Christian  falls  into  the 
Slough  of  Despond,  travels  into  the  Valley  of  Humiliation, 
climbs  the  Hill  of  Difficulty,  has  a  fight  with  the  demon 
Apollyon,  is  thrown  along  with  Hopeful  into  the  dungeon  of 
Doubting  Castle  by  Giant  Despair.  At  length,  after  many 
difficulties,  he  comes  to  the  city  of  All  Delight,  where  he  is 
welcomed  by  a  company  of  angels  that  come  singing  down 
the  street.  Pilgrim's  Progress  has  been  translated  into 
seventy-five  languages  and  dialects,  and  has  perhaps  been 
more  widely  read  than  any  other  book  in  the  English  lan- 
guage except  the  Bible. 


248  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

Suggested  Readings  ^ 

Palgrave  :     Golden  Treasunj,  Book  II. 
Walton:     The  Compleat  Angler.     (Everjmian's  Library.) 
Milton :     L'  Allegro,  II  Penseroso,  Comus,  Ltjcidas,  Sonnets,  Par- 
adise Lost,  Books  I  and  II. 

Bunyan :     Pilgrim's    Progress. 

1  Except  where  special  editions  are  mentioned,  the  books  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Pocket  Series  of  English  Classics  published  by  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 


I 


CHAPTER  XI 
CLASSICISM 

Characteristics  of  the  Age.  —  The  restoration  of  the  Stuarts 
in  1660  brought  a  strong  reaction  against  Puritanism.  The 
upper  classes,  especially,  had  grown  weary  of  the  Puritanic 
restraints,  and  quickly  adopted  the  new  ideas,  new  fashions, 
and  new  moral  standards  which  the  gay  court  of  Charles  II 
introduced  from  France.  In  their  hatred  of  hypocrisy  and 
cant  they  went  even  further :  they  set  aside  not  only  the 
restraints  of  Puritanism,  but  also  all  that  is  emotional, 
mysterious,  and  vital  in  religion.  Decent  conformity  to  a 
conventional  religion  was  all  that  could  be  asked.  Many 
rejected  the  personal  God  with  whom  the  Puritan  had 
communed  face  to  face,  and  made  for  themselves  a  god  by 
means  of  the  reason  alone,  neglecting  the  revelations  of  the 
Bible.  These  deists,  as  they  were  called,  belonged  to  the 
established  English  church,  but  they  defended  the  church, 
not  on  the  ground  that  it  represented  the  true  faith,  but  be- 
cause it  was  an  established  institution  and  helped  to  maintain 
law  and  order.  Moral  standards  were  low.  Corruption  in 
public  life  was  almost  universal.  Walpole  maintained  his 
power  for  twenty  years  by  open  and  notorious  bribery.  Polite 
society  gathered  about  the  gaming  tables,  where  immense 
sums  were  lost  and  won ;  or  frequented  the  theaters,  where 
plays  were  enacted,  so  immoral  that  no  one  can  read  them 
to-day  without  surprise  and  disgust.  To  be  sure,  there  was 
a  certain  veneer  and  polish,  a  superficial  refinement,  but  at 
heart  the  age  was  coarse  and  corrupt. 

249 


250  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

The  intellectual  life  was  brilliant  rather  than  profound. 
There  was  no  effort,  as  with  the  Puritans,  to  solve  the  deep 
mysteries  of  life ;  no  effort,  as  with  the  Elizabethans,  to 
reach  out  beyond  the  limits  of  ordinary  experience  and  explore 
unknown  worlds.  Men  were  content  to  make  what  they  could 
out  of  ordinary  experiences  through  the  exercise  of  reason 
and  common  sense.  The  center  of  interest  was  in  the  coffee- 
houses and  clubs.  Here  came,  daily,  groups  of  politicians 
and  literary  men  to  discuss  the  gossip  of  the  town,  the  newest 
drama,  the  latest  book,  the  most  startling  gains  and  losses 
at  the  gaming  table,  the  latest  news  of  the  drawing-rooms, 
the  probable  fortunes  of  political  parties.  There  was  about  it 
all,  however,  a  great  intellectual  zest.  Daily  discussion  made 
the  minds  of  men  keen,  discriminating,  brilliant. 

Characteristics  of  the  Literature.  —  The  change  in  social, 
moral,  and  intellectual  standards  brought  a  corresponding 
change  in  literature.  Instead  of  a  literature  of  enthusiasm, 
emotion,  and  mystery,  or  of  mysticism  and  melancholy, 
we  have  a  literature  of  reason,  appealing  almost  exclusively 
to  the  intellect,  a  literature  of  the  town  life  consisting 
largely  of  wit,  satire,  and  travesty.  There  were  dramas 
like  those  of  Congreve,  witty  and  licentious,  the  direct 
expression  of  a  social  life  devoid  of  moral  standards.  There 
were  essays  like  those  in  The  Spectator,  comments  on  life 
by  the  frequenters  of  the  drawing-rooms,  the  coffee-house, 
and  the  club.  There  was  didactic  and  satirical  verse  like 
that  of  Pope,  cl-ever,  witty,  and  faultlessly  regular,  but  never 
profound  ;  fanciful,  but  not  imaginative.  Writers  thought 
less  of  what  they  said  than  of  how  they  said  it.  Every  piece 
of  writing  was  severely  tested  by  the  set  rules  of  art  which 
the  French  under  the  leadership  of  Malherbe  and  Boileau 
had  formulated  from  the  study  of  the  classical  writers  and  of 
the  Italian  scholars.     Milton,  Shakespeare,  and  Spenser  were 


CLASSICISM  251 

neglected.     The  result  was  a  clever  and  finished  but  not 
profoundly  imaginative  literature. 

(a)    THE   DRAMA 

Classical  Ideas.  —  The  characteristics  of  the  period  are 
well  illustrated  in  the  drama.  The  theaters  had  been  closed 
by  the  Puritans  in  1642  ;  but  the  pressure  for  dramatic  enter- 
tainments had  been  so  great  that,  before  the  end  of  the 
Commonwealth,  permission  had  been  given  to  Davenant 
to  present  his  operatic  drama,  The  Siege  of  Rhodes.  This 
play,  Dryden  claims,  was  the  beginning  of  the  "  heroic 
drama,"  the  first  type  of  drama  to  develop  when  the  theaters 
were  opened  after  the  Restoration.  Dryden  himself  was  the 
principal  exponent  of  this  kind  of  play.  He  did  not  follow 
the  traditions  of  Shakespeare  and  the  romantic  drama  of 
the  Elizabethan  time.  He  followed,  rather,  Ben  Jonson's 
classical  ideas  enforced  and  modificfl  by  the  rules  of  dramatic 
composition  wh'ch  had  been  formulated  by  the  French 
critics  and  exemplified  by  Corneille  and  other  French  dram- 
atists. He  tried  to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the  three 
unities,  i.e.,  that  the  action  should  be  confined  to  a  single 
place,  that  the  time  represented  should  not  exceed  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  that  the  action  should  have  a  clearly  defined 
unity.  Dryden's  principal  heroic  plays  are  The  Indian 
Emperor  (1665)  and  The  Conquest  of  Granada  (1670).  They 
did  not  altogether  satisfy  the  new  classical  interest  in  re- 
straint, for  the  characters  were  pushed  into  an  extravagance 
of  passion  which  caused  the  plays  to  be  caricatured  by  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham  in  a  mock-heroic  play,  called  The 
Rehear.ml.    They  were,  however,  prevailingly  classical  in  tone. 

Dryden's  early  plays  were  written  in  th(>  heroic  couplet, 
two  iambic  pentameter  lines  united  by  rime ;  l)ut  in  his 
later   work    rimed    verse   was    abandoned.      All   for   Love 


252  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

(1678),  a  rehandling  of  the  story  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra, 
was  written  in  blank  verse.  This  play  is  considered  the  best 
of  Dryden's  tragedies. 

Thomas  Otway  (1651-1685),  an  unsuccessful  actor  who 
turned  to  the  writing  of  plays,  produced  two  tragedies,  which 
are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  equal  to  any  of  Dryden's.  They  are 
The  Orphan  (1680)  and  Venice  Preserved  (1682).  The  latter 
held  the  stage  for  many  years,  and  was  considered  a  model 
for  the  writing  of  tragedies.  Tragedy  did  not  flourish, 
however,  in  the  classical  period.  Even  Addison's  Cato  and 
Johnson's  Irene  are  notable  largely  because  their  authors 
became  famous  in  other  kinds  of  writing. 

Comedy  was  more  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  time, 
and  reflects  the  time  in  fashions,  manners,  and  speech.  The 
prevailing  taste  was  for  love  intrigues  developed  by  means 
of  brilliant  dialogue.  George  Etheredge,  an  Englishman 
educated  in  Paris  and  familiar  with  Moliere,  was  the  first 
to  write  plays  of  this  kind.  He  was  followed  by  William 
Wycherley  (1640-1715),  whose  most  important  play  is 
The  Plain  Dealer  (1674),  and  by  the  more  brilliant  William 
Congreve  (1670-1729),  whose  masterpieces  were  Love  for 
Love  (1695)  and  The  Way  of  the  World  (1700).  All  of  these 
plays  are  reckless  and  cynical,  expressing  the  immoral  at- 
mosphere of  the  corrupt  court  of  the  Restoration.  This 
gross  immorality  called  forth  in  1698  the  vigorous  protest  of 
Jeremy  Collier  in  a  Shoii  View  of  the  Profaneness  and  Im- 
morality of  the  English  Stage,  but  the  coarseness  continued 
in  the  plays  of  John  Vanbrugh  (1666-1726)  and  to  an  extent 
in  the  work  of  George  Farquhar  (1678-1707).  After  the 
turn  of  the  century,  however,  new  forces  began  to  work, 
making  for  morality  and  decent  living ;  and  in  Richard 
Steele's  plays  comedy  comes  into  alliance  with  these  forces. 
The  later  comedy  of  the  eighteenth  century,   represented 


CLASSICISM  253 

•by  Goldsmith  (1728-1774)  and  Shoridan  (1751-1816),  retains 
the  brilHant  dialogue  without  the  gross  immorality  of  the 
Restoration  plays.  Goldsmith's  She  Stoop.'^  to  Conquer  and 
Sheridan's  The  Rivals  and  The  School  for  Scandal  have  held 
the  stage  down  to  the  present  time.  Tony  T.umpkin,  the 
loutish  squire  of  She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  Mrs.  Malaprop  and 
Bob  Acres  in  The  Rivals,  and  Lady  Teazle  in  The  School 
for  Scandal  are  still  familiar  to  theater-goers.  Their  sparkling 
dialogue  is  a  never  failing  source  of  enjoyment.  In  these 
plays  we  have  an  amusing  mock  world,  light,  trifling,  and 
frivolous,  but  not  fundamentally  and  flagrantly  immoral. 

(b)   NON-DRAMATIC   POETRY 

Lyric  Poetry.  —  The  poetry  of  classicism  —  as  might 
be  expected  in  an  age  in  which  reason  and  common  sense 
were  emphasized  at  the  expense  of  imagination  and  emotion 
—  was  for  the  most  part  satiric,  didactic,  and  mock-heroic. 
There  was  some  lyric  verse  of  a  high  order,  Dryden's  Alex- 
ander's Feast  for  example,  a  fine  ode  on  the  power  of  music  ; 
but  for  the  most  part  the  poetry  consisted  of  light  society 
verse,  poems  of  political  and  religious  controversy,  and  poetic 
literary  criticism. 

Political  Satire.  —  Dryden's  Absalom  and  Achitophel 
and  Mac  Flecknoe  are  typical  examples  of  the  satiric  verse. 
The  former  is  a  political  satire.  While  Charles  II  was  king, 
the  court  and  country  were  divided,  on  the  matter  of  the 
succession,  between  the  partisans  of  the  king's  brother  James, 
who  was  a  Papist,  and  the  adherents  of  the  king's  illegitimate 
son,  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  The  famous  Earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury was  a  partisan  of  Monmouth,  and  pushed  his  claims 
vigorously  before  the  people  and  parliament.  Dryden,  in 
adherence  to  James,  wrote  Absalom  and  Achitophel  as  a 
satire  on  the  agitation  in  behalf  of  Monmouth.     He  told 


254  STUDIES   TN    LITERATURE 

the  old  story  of  Absalom's  revolt  against  King  David  in  such 
a  way  that  Absalom  was  clearly  understood  to  be  the  Duke 
of  Monmouth  ;  Achitophel,  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury ;  David, 
King  Charles  II.  All  the  characters,  indeed,  and  all  the  events 
have  a  direct  relation  to  Dryden's  own  time.  Mac  Flecknoe 
was  an  attack  upon  the  poet  Shadwell  who  had  entered  the 
controversy  as  a  champion  of  Shaftesbury  and  the  Whigs. 

"  Hudibras."  —  Another  satire  quite  as  popular  was  Samuel 
Butler's  Hudibras,  a  scurrilous  mock  romance  directed 
against  the  hypocrisy,  intolerance,  and  cant  of  the  Puritans. 
It  was  remarkably  popular  at  the  court  of  King  Charles  II. 
The  king  is  said  to  have  carried  a  copy  about  with  him  con- 
stantly.    A  short  extract  will  show  its  burlesque  tone. 

"  He  was  in  logic  a  great  critic. 
Profoundly  skilled  in  analytic ; 
He  could  distinguish,  and  divide 
A  hair  'twixt  south  and  southwest  side ; 
On  either  which  he  would  dispute, 
Confute,  change  hands,  and  still  confute ; 
He'd  undertake  to  prove,  by  force 
Of  argument,  a  man's  no  horse ; 
He'd  run  in  debt  by  disputation, 
And  pa}^  with  ratiocination. 

"  For  he  was  of  that  stul^born  crew 
Of  errant  saints,  whom  all  men  grant 
To  be  the  true  Church  Militant ; 
Such  as  do  build  their  faith  upon 
The  holy  text  of  pike  and  gun ; 
Decide  all  controversies  by 
Infallible  artillery  ; 
And  prove  their  doctrine  orthodox 
By  apostolic  blows  and  knocks ; 
Compound  for  sins  they  are  inclined  to, 
By  damning  those  they  have  no  mind  to." 


CLASSICISM  255 

Pope's  Satires.  —  Pope's  most  famous  satires  are  The 
Dunciad  and  the  Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot.  The  Dunciad 
is  directed  against  Pope's  literary  rivals.  The  dullards,  the 
pedants,  and  the  bad  poets  are  presented  in  ridiculous  situa- 
tions. The  poem  is  brilliant,  but  not  judicious,  for  Pope 
satirized  every  one  against  whom  he  had  the  slightest  per- 
sonal spite.  The  Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot  contains  the 
famous  clever  but  unfair  description  of  Addison : 

"  Peace  to  all  such  !  but  were  there  one  whose  fires 
True  genius  kindles,  and  fair  fame  inspires ; 
Blest  with  each  talent,  and  each  art  to  please, 
And  born  to  write,  converse,  and  live  with  ease : 
Should  such  a  man,  too  fond  to  rule  alone. 
Bear,  like  the  Turk,  no  brother  near  the  throne, 
View  him  with  scornful,  yet  with  jealous  eyes, 
And  hate  for  arts  that  caused  himself  to  rise; 
Danrn  with  faint  praise,  assent  with  ci\il  leer. 
And  without  sneering,  teach  the  rest  to  sneer; 
Willing  to  woimd,  and  yet  afraid  to  strike 
Just  hint  a  fault,  and  hesitate  dislike  ; 
Alike  reserved  to  blame,  or  to  commend, 
A  timorous  foe,  and  a  suspicious  friend ; 
Dreading  e'en  fools,  by  flatterers  besieged, 
And  so  obliging,  that  he  ne'er  obhged ; 
Like  Cato,  give  his  little  senate  laws, 
And  sit  attentive  to  his  own  applause ; 
While  wits  and  templars  every  sentence  raise, 
And  wonder  with  a  foolish  face  of  praise  — 
Who  but  must  laugh,  if  such  a  man  there  be  ? 
Who  would  not  weep,  if  Atticus  were  he  ?  " 

Later  in  the  century  came  the  less  bitter,  but  none  the 
less  interesting  Retaliation  by  Oliver  Goldsmith.  The 
poet  gives  amusing  pictures   of  David   Garrick,   Edmund 


256  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Burke,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  other  famous  members  of 
Dr.  Johnson's  literary  club. 

Social  satires  also  were  popular.  The  best  is  Pope's 
Rape  of  the  Lock,  a  mock-heroic  poem  on  the  artificial  society 
of  Queen  Anne's  time.  The  theme  was  suggested  by  the  rude 
behavior  of  Lord  Petre  in  cutting  a  lock  of  hair  from  the 
head  of  Miss  Fennor  at  a  card  party  at  Hampton.  The 
poem  pokes  delightful  fun  at  the  society  belle,  and  is  a  clever 
parody  of  the  heroic  style  in  poetry.  Dr.  Johnson's  London 
and  The  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes  are  in  the  manner  of 
Juvenal's  Latin  satires.  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village  is  an 
emotional  and  sympathetic  account  of  the  sufferings  of 
the  poor.  This  poem  is  classical  in  form,  but  in  its  general 
feeling  anticipates  the  romantic  period.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  Crabbe's  Village. 

The  didactic  poetry  is  of  less  interest.  The  most  important 
examples  are  Pope's  Essay  on  Man  and  his  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism. The  Essay  on  Man  is  an  explanation  of  man's  rela- 
tion to  God  and  the  universe,  based  on  reason  and  common 
sense  rather  than  on  revelation  and  faith.  The  first  epistle 
discusses  man's  place  in  the  universe ;  the  second,  his  indi- 
vidual nature  ;  the  third,  his  relation  to  society ;  the  fourth, 
his  attitude  toward  happiness.  The  Essay  on  Criticism  is  a 
versified  statement  of  the  ideas  about  literature  and  the  rules 
of  criticism  which  had  been  formulated  by  the  classical 
school  along  the  lines  suggested  by  the  French  critics.  The 
poem  sets  forth  the  artistic  principles  of  the  time  in  finished 
form. 

The  Closed  Couplet.  —  Most  of  the  poetry  was  written  in 
"  the  closed  couplet,"  which  consists  of  two  iambic  pen- 
tameter lines  united  by  rime.  The  thought  is  for  the  most 
part  confined  to  the  limits  of  the  couplet.  This  verse  had 
been  used  before  in  English  literature,  especially  by  Waller 


CLASSICISM  257 

and  Cowley  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  but 
not  until  the  time  of  Pope  did  it  reach  perfect  artistic  finish, 
and  not  until  then  was  the  principle  established  that  the 
thought  should  be  complete  at  the  end  of  each  couplet. 
The  closed  couplet  became  the  conventional  meter  of  the 
classicists, 

(c)    THE   ESSAY  AND   THE   PAMPHLET 

Periodical  Literature.  —  It  was  to  be  expected  that  an  age 
of  reason  and  common  sense  —  an  age  in  which  the  principal 
interests  were  in  social  life  and  in  political  controversy  — 
should  develop  a  literature  of  prose  even  more  important 
than  its  poetic  literature.  Indeed  the  eighteenth  century  is 
distinctly  a  century  of  prose.  Most  of  this  prose  literature, 
with  the  exception  of  novels,  appeared  in  the  form  of  periodi- 
cals and  pamphlets.  The  most  important  periodicals  were 
The  Tatler  and  The  Spectator,  edited  by  Addison  and  Steele ; 
The  Examiner,  conducted  by  Swift ;  The  Rambler  and  The 
Idler,  edited  by  Dr.  Johnson ;  and  The  Gentleman'' s  Magazine 
and  the  London  Magazme,  the  forerunners  of  the  famous 
Edinburgh,  Quarterly,  and  Blackwood's. 

Addison.  —  The  Tatler  and  The  Spectator  set  the  fashion 
and  became  the  models  in  this  kind  of  writing.  The  chief 
aim  was  to  make  fun  of  vices  and  follies  and  elevate  the 
morals  of  the  age.  Addison  in  particular  had  a  moral  purpose, 
not  very  profound,  perhaps,  but  representing  a  distinct 
reaction  against  the  profligacy  and  excess  of  the  years  im- 
mediately following  the  Restoration.  H(>  directed  his  satire 
against  the  coarse  vices  of  gambling,  drinking,  swearing, 
dueling,  practical  joking,  indecent  conversation.  He  was 
the  apostle  of  politeness  and  refinement,  of  conventional 
morality.  He  wrote  also  literary  criticism,  such  as  the  famous 
series  on  Milton,  and  the  essay  on  The  Ballad  of  Chevy  Chace. 


258  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Above  all  he  developed  that  series  of  character  sketches 
which  is  almost  a  novel,  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers. 
He  was  perhaps  the  most  graceful  and  winning  humorist 
of  the  time. 

Richard  Steele  (1672-1729),  who  has  the  credit  of  founding 
The  Taller  and  who  was  intimately  associated  with  Addison 
in  editing  The  Spectator,  was  a  more  sympathetic  writer 
than  Addison,  but  not  so  strong  of  character  nor  so  keen  of 
intellect.  Indeed  there  is  a  marked  discrepancy  between 
his  personal  life  and  the  tenor  of  much  of  his  writings. 
However  there  is  a  sincere  human  quality  about  his  incon- 
sistencies which  gives  his  work  a  peculiar  charm.  His 
style  is  more  careless,  flexible,  and  free  than  that  of  Addison. 

Jonathan  Swift  (1667-1745)  had  a  more  vigorous  mind  than 
either  Addison  or  Steele,  and  in  his  way  was  quite  as  impor- 
tant a  personage.  He  wrote  for  the  periodicals,  especially 
political  periodicals,  and  was  the  editor  of  The  Examiner, 
an  influential  Tory  paper.  Much  of  his  writing,  however, 
appeared  in  the  form  of  pamphlets.  His  distinguishing 
characteristic  is  his  pessimism.  He  had  a  thoroughgoing 
contempt  for  human  nature  and  was  most  bitter  in  his  satire. 
He  liked  to  play  practical  jokes  to  show  his  contempt  for 
men.  Once  he  dispersed  a  crowd  which  had  gathered  to  see 
an  eclipse  by  sending  a  message  that  according  to  the  Dean's 
order  the  eclipse  would  be  put  off  for  a  day.  Another  practi- 
cal joke  was  directed  against  a  man  named  Partridge,  who 
issued  an  almanac  containing  predictions  of  events  to  take 
place  during  the  next  year.  To  expose  Partridge,  Swift 
published,  over  the  name  Isaac  Bickerstaff,  Predictions  for 
the  Year  1708,  in  which  he  predicted  the  death  of  Partridge 
on  the  29th  of  March,  and,  on  the  30th  of  March,  followed 
the  prediction  with  an  account  of  Partridge's  last  days  and 
death.     Of  course  Partridge  insisted  that  he  was  still  alive, 


CLASSICISM  259 

but  BickcTstaff  replied  with  various  arguments  in  the  manner 
of  Partridge's  ahiianac,  proving  that  the  impostor  was  cer- 
tainly dead.  Partridge  became  the  laughing-stock  of  the 
town. 

Swift's  Satirical  Method. — Swift's  writings  are,  for  the 
most  part,  both  earnest  and  playful,  and  often  full  of  very 
bitter  irony.  The  Battle  of  the  Books  is  a  humorous  dis- 
cussion of  the  comparative  merits  of  ancient  and  modern 
writers,  suggested  by  the  controversy  in  which  Swift's 
patron,  Sir  William  Temple,  was  then  deeply  engaged. 
The  Tale  of  the  Tub,  a  fierce  satire  on  religion,  is,  on  the 
face  of  it,  the  story  of  three  stupid  brothers  quarreling  over 
their  inheritance.  Each  of  the  three  has  received  from  his 
father  a  coat  with  minute  direction  for  its  care  and  use.  The 
coat  is  Christian  truth.  The  brothers,  Peter,  Martin,  and 
Jack,  represent  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  Lutherans,  and 
the  Calvinists.  The  way  in  which  the  sons  evade  their 
father's  will  by  changing  the  fashion  of  their  garments 
constitutes  the  satire  on  religious  sects.  The  Modest  Proposal 
for  preventing  the  poor  in  Ireland  from  becoming  burden- 
some contains  the  sarcastically  cruel  suggestion  that  the 
children  be  killed  and  eaten  like  pigs  and  sheep.  This 
would  create  a  market  for  the  largest  and,  under  the  existing 
circumstances,  most  useless  product  of  the  poor.  It  would 
make  children  an  asset  instead  of  a  bill  of  expense.  It  would 
change  the  financial  burden  of  the  poor  into  a  profitable 
business. 

"  Gulliver's  Travels."  —  Swift's  most  widel}'  known  book 
is  Gulliver's  Travels.  It  may  be  read  with  interest  merely  as 
a  story  of  adventurous  journeys  to  Lilliput  and  Brobding- 
nag  and  to  the  country  of  the  Houyhnhnms.  Many  children 
have  been  charmed  with  it,  who  knew  nothing  of  its  hidden 
meaning.     Beneath  the  story,  however,  the  mature  reader 


260  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

sees  a  bitter  satire  on  human  nature.  In  the  voyage  to 
Lilliput  human  motives  are  set  to  work  on  a  small  scale 
for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  the  littleness  and  meanness  of 
human  life.  In  the  voyage  to  Brobdingnag,  people  larger 
than  men  are  described  and  the  actions  of  ordinary  human 
beings  made  petty  and  insignificant  in  comparison.  In  the 
land  of  the  Houyhnhnms  horses  are  the  rulers  and  masters; 
man  is  in  servitude  and  degradation.  The  picture  of  the 
Yahoo,  the  human  beast,  shows  Swift's  contempt  for  man 
at  its  worst. 

Swift  was  often  coarse  and  to  some  people  disgusting; 
but  his  sincere,  fierce  hatred  of  sham  and  affectation  made  his 
criticism  keen  and  vigorous.  His  style,  too,  often  has  a  di- 
rectness and  simplicity  which  are  truly  admirable.  Our  best 
source  of  information  about  the  man  himself  as  an  active, 
successful  man  of  affairs  is  the  daily  account  of  his  doings 
which  he  himself  wrote  in  his  Journal  to  Stella. 

Dr.  Johnson.  —  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (1709-1784)  was  the  most  conspicuous 
literary  figure.  Thanks  to  Boswell's  detailed  and  gossipy 
account,  we  know  Johnson  more  intimately  than  almost  any 
other  man  of  letters;  a  striking  and  original  person,  out- 
wardly huge,  awkward,  vulgar,  contentious,  an  eccentric 
"  old  bear";  inwardly  a  brave,  heroic  soul,  battling  man- 
fully with  poverty,  disease,  and  the  fear  of  death,  yet  never 
losing  faith  in  God  or  in  himself.  This  vulgar  eccentric  be- 
came a  social  lion,  the  welcome  associate  of  artists,  scholars, 
actors,  and  literary  men,  the  acknowledged  dictator  of  an 
elegant  age,  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 

Range  of  the  Work.  —  His  range  of  work  is  noteworthy. 
Besides  the  poetry  and  drama  already  mentioned,  he  contrib- 
uted essays  to  The  Rambler  and  The  Idler  in  the  fashion  of 
Addison,    though    without    Addison's    grace  of    style.     He 


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CLASSICISM  2G1 

compiled  a  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  whimsical 
in  places  rather  than  scholarly,  but  important  as  a  pioneer 
book  of  its  kind.  In  a  single  week  he  wrote  Rasselas,  Prince 
of  Abyssinia,  the  reflections  of  the  author  in  story  form. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Shakespeare ;  and,  in  spite  of  his 
scant  knowledge  of  the  sixteenth-century  literature,  did  it  so 
well  that  many  of  his  sensible  comments  still  appear  in  anno- 
tated editions  of  the  plays.  His  best  and  most  lasting  work 
is  his  Lives  of  the  Poets,  brief  accounts  of  the  authors  with 
critical  comments  on  their  writings.  His  criticisms  are  not 
always  just,  for  Johnson  was  a  man  of  prejudices ;  but  most 
of  the  "  lives  "  are  well  worth  reading  as  the  honest  though 
prejudiced  judgment  of  a  powerful  mind. 

Johnson's  Style.  — Johnson's  style  is  in  marked  contrast 
with  that  of  Addison.  He  praised  Addison's  style,  saying 
that  "  the  person  who  would  secure  a  perfect  English  style 
must  give  his  days  and  nights  to  the  study  of  Addison."  But 
either  Johnson  did  not  follow  his  own  advice  or  did  not 
profit  by  the  study,  for  his  style  is  often  pompous  and  heavy, 
crowded  with  Latin  derivatives,  and  full  of  long  and  involved 
sentences.  To  be  sure  these  long  sentences  with  all  their 
modifiers  often  have  an  effective  rhythmic  eloquence ;  and 
Johnson  could  be  terse  and  simple  when  he  chose,  as  the 
directness  of  his  conversation  related  by  Boswell  and  some  of 
his  later  literary  productions  amply  show.  Yet  in  general 
his  style  is  exceedingly  artificial  and  bookish. 

Edmund  Burke.  —  One  of  the  last  of  the  eighteenth-cen- 
tury classicists  was  Edmund  Burke.  His  works  have  not 
found  a  large  place  in  literature,  because  he  gave  his  atten- 
tion to  political  affairs  rather  than  to  literary  pursuits.  He 
did  not  hold  high  political  office,  but  was  for  long  the  brains 
of  the  Whig  opposition  to  the  efforts  of  George  III  to  increase 
the  royal  prerogative.     Most  of  his  productions,  therefore,  are 


262  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

contributions  to  the  literature  of  politics  and  government. 
His  speeches  on  American  Taxation  (1774)  and  on  Concilia- 
tion with  America  (1775)  give  his  ideas  on  the  American 
Revolution.  The  Nabob  of  Arcofs  Debts  and  the  Impeach- 
ment of  Warren  Hastings  discuss  political  affairs  in  India. 
Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution  (1790)  and  Letters  on  a 
Regicide  Peace  (1796)  are  his  best  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  French  Revolution.  He  was  a  practical  man  of 
reason  and  common  sense,  and  therefore  naturally  a  classicist. 
He  believed  in  established  institutions  and  in  the  slow 
development  of  civilization.  He  shunned  what  he  thought 
were  impractical  doctrines  and  theories.  He  was  against 
coercion  in  America  simply  because  he  thought  coercion  im- 
practicable ;  and  he  opposed  the  French  Revolution  because 
it  broke  connections  with  the  past  and  was  based  upon 
theory  and  not  upon  experience.  He  believed  safety  lay  in 
stemming  the  tide  of  revolution  in  Europe,  and  therefore  did 
what  he  could  to  marshal  the  forces  of  reaction,  contrib- 
uting much  to  the  final  English  success  at  Trafalgar  and 
Waterloo. 

Romantic  Tendencies  in  Burke  and  Johnson.  —  Standing 
thus  for  the  reasonable  and  the  practical,  he  allied  himself 
with  the  classicists  in  literature ;  yet  he  was  not  an  uncom- 
promising adherent  of  that  school.  The  breadth  of  his  sym- 
pathy and  the  fervor  of  his  imagination  gave  him  a  kinship 
with  the  rising  romanticists.  Both  Burke  and  Johnson, 
indeed,  show  signs  of  the  new  influences.  In  general  they 
both  followed  in  the  way  of  the  classicists,  and  championed 
the  old  ideas  of  art ;  but  in  critical  ideas  Johnson  was  not  so 
thorough  a  formalist  as  his  immediate  predecessors,  accept- 
ing, for  instance,  only  with  considerable  modification  and 
reservation  the  doctrine  of  the  three  dramatic  unities,  as  the 
preface  to  his  edition  of  Shakespeare  clearly  shows;    and 


CLASSICISM  263 

Burke  departed  from  the  practice  of  the  classicists  in 
mingling  with  his  statistics  and  his  philosophy  brilliant 
flights  of  imagination  and  powerful  emotional  appeals. 

(d)    THE   NOVEL 

The  Periodicals.  ^—  The  classical  age  of  reason  and  com- 
mon sense  developed  a  type  of  prose  fiction  radically  different 
from  the  old  romances  of  chivalry,  which  were  far  too  extrav- 
agant to  appeal  to  a  matter-of-fact  age.  The  new  tendency 
is  seen  in  the  periodical  literature  as  early  as  The  Tatler  and 
The  Spectator.  The  character  sketching,  at  first  abstract 
and  general,  becomes  incUvidual,  personal,  lifelike.  Brief 
stories  appear  under  such  titles  as  The  Civil  Husband  {Tatler, 
No.  53)  and  The  Story  of  Miss  Betty  Cured  of  Her  Vanity 
{Guardian,  No.  159).  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers,  a 
series  of  essays  united  by  common  characters  and  by  a  con- 
tinuous story,  is  a  real  forerunner  of  the  novel  of  life. 

Picaresque  Stories.  —  Another  influence  came  from  the 
Spanish  picaresque  stories,  autobiographical  accounts  of 
the  vagrant  experiences  of  unscrupulous  rogues,  who  mingle 
in  real  life,  lying,  cheating,  and  stealing,  and  who  tell  of  their 
rogueries  with  impudent  candor.  Daniel  Defoe's  Colonel 
Jack  is  a  typical  English  story  of  this  kind.  The  hero  is  of 
gentle  blood,  but  is  brought  up  among  thieves  and  pick- 
pockets, with  no  adequate  conception  of  right  and  wrong. 
He  is  kidnapped  and  taken  to  Mrginia,  where  he  rises  to 
influence.  He  returns  to  England,  a  merchant,  goes  to  the 
wars,  behaves  bravelj-,  gets  preferment,  and  is  finalh"  made 
colonel  of  a  regiment.  The  Journal  of  the  Plague  Year 
illustrates  the  same  kind  of  writing.  Defoe  had  a  way  of 
making  all  his  stories  marvelously  real  by  the  massing  of 
details  and  by  a  simple  matter-of-fact  style.  His  Robinson 
Crusoe  has  been  one  of  the  most  widely  read  of  English  books. 


264  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Swift's  Gulliver's  Travels  shows  this  type  of  story  adapted  to 
purposes  of  satire. 

The  Love  Story. — Samuel  Richardson  (1689-1761)  was 
the  first  great  writer  of  love  stories.  He  was  minute  in  the 
analysis  of  character,  developed  carefully  the  idea  of  plot,  and 
emphasized  sentiment.  He  began  as  a  letter  writer.  One 
of  his  diversions  as  a  young  man  was  to  write  love  letters 
for  the  young  women  of  his  neighborhood,  all  of  whom  seem 
to  have  made  him  their  confidant  in  love  affairs.  Indeed  he 
made  a  specialty  of  the  feminine  heart.  His  most  famous 
book,  Clarissa  Harloioe,  is  a  love  story  in  the  form  of  letters. 
It  is  most  elaborately  analytical.  Every  movement  of 
Clarissa's  mind,  every  flutter  of  her  heart,  is  subjected  to  the 
most  searching  analysis  and  then  discussed  and  rediscussed 
from  every  conceivable  point  of  view.  The  plot  movement  is 
slow,  but  it  is  constant,  and  is  developed  to  a  high  tension  at 
the  climax.  In  scenes  of  intense  passion  Richardson  is  at  his 
best.    His  other  stories  are  Pamela  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison. 

Henry  Fielding  (1707-1754)  was  a  more  genuine  realist 
than  Richardson.  He  knew  more  of  life,  and  he  knew  it 
better.  He  began  novel  writing  in  protest  against  the 
moral  pretensions  and  sentimentality  of  Richardson.  The 
contrast  is  therefore  marked.  Richardson's  novels  are  of 
the  hothouse  variety ;  Fielding's  have  the  vigor  of  the  sun- 
shine and  the  air. 

Tom  Jones  is  Fielding's  most  famous  book.  The  story 
opens  with  the  discovery  of  the  hero  as  a  new-born  babe 
in  the  house  of  a  virtuous  gentleman,  Mr.  Allworthy.  Here 
he  grows  up  with  Allworthy's  nephew  Blifel,  who  out  of 
jealousy  ruins  Tom's  reputation  with  his  benefactor,  and 
gets  him  turned  out  into  the  world.  Meanwhile  Tom  has 
fallen  in  love  with  the  daughter  of  a  neighbor,  Miss  Sophia 
Western,  who  returns  his  love  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 


CLASSICISM  265 

her  father.  Tom  travels  to  London,  with  many  wayside 
adventures ;  he  passes,  not  unscathed,  through  various 
temptations ;  and  finally,  by  the  discovery  of  the  secret  of 
his  birth  and  the  revelation  of  Blifel's  villainy,  he  is  advanced 
to  his  happy  fortune,  the  favor  of  Allworthy,  and  marriage 
with  Sophia.  The  structure  of  the  story  is  particularly 
noteworthy.  The  secret  of  Jones's  parentage  is  skillfully 
kept  from  the  reader  till  the  end  and  tluni  disclosed  in  a 
natural  way.  Cheap  devices  of  plot,  based  on  pure  chance, 
are  avoided.  Conversations  are  direct,  not  reported.  The 
scenes  are  localized  and  given  a  real  background.  Char- 
acter and  incident  are  equalized. 

Other  novels  by  Fielding  are  Joseph  Andrews,  Jonathan 
Wild,  and  Amelia.  Fielding's  work  is  often  coarse,  and  his 
point  of  view  worldly  like  the  age.  And  since  he  cared 
nothing  for  spiritual  things,  his  ideals  are  not  high.  Still  he 
is  always  direct  and  sincere.  His  novels  display  genuine 
humanity. 

Smollett  and  Sterne.  —  Two  other  stories  of  wide  repu- 
tation are  Smollett's  Humphrey  Clinker  and  Sterne's  Tristram 
Shandy.  Humphrey  Clinker  is  haphazard  in  plot  and  full 
of  unpleasant  incidents.  The  humor  is  of  a  savage  sort, 
consisting  largely  of  cruel  practical  jokes.  The  method 
of  treatment  is  far  less  sympathetic  than  Fielding's.  As  a 
record  of  contemporary  life  and  manners,  however,  the  book 
has  decided  interest.  Tristram  Shandy  can  hardly  be  called 
a  novel.  It  has  no  plan  ;  no  beginning,  no  progress,  no  con- 
clusion. Sterne  says,  "  I  began  it  with  no  clear  idea  of  what  it 
was  to  turn  out,  only  a  design  of  shocking  people  and  amusing 
myself."  Sterne  had  absolutely  no  sense  of  propriety;  and 
since  his  mind  was  incongruous  and  thoroughly  sentimental, 
he  naturally  wrote  a  whimsical  and  immoral  book.  The 
characters,  however,  are  so  very  real  and  have  such  distinc- 


266  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

lively  human  charm  that  the  book  is  still  read  with  interest 
in  spite  of  its  obvious  faults. 

Goldsmith's  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield."  —  One  of  the  most 
delightful  books  of  the  period  is  Oliver  Goldsmith's  The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield.  The  plot  is  artlessly  absurd,  the  situa- 
tions comical,  the  humor  delightful,  the  style  graceful.  The 
wholesome  optimism  of  the  book  is  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  work  of  Sterne  and  of  Swift,  and  not  altogether  character- 
istic of  classicism.  Goldsmith  is  not  a  realist ;  he  does  not 
accept  the  world  as  it  is  ;  he  insists  upon  idealizing  it.  Nor 
does  his  story  have  to  do  with  the  social  life  of  cities.  It  is 
an  account  of  simple  family  life,  and  treats  "  the  out-of-doors  " 
with  real  feeling.  Indeed  Goldsmith  has  much  in  common 
with  the  new  romantic  tendencies.  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield 
belongs  to  the  literature  of  transition. 

(e)    CRITICISM 

Criticism.  —  The  ideas  of  the  classicists  about  literature 
are  expressed  in  their  critical  writings.  The  earliest  impor- 
tant work  is  Dryden's  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy.  In  his  de- 
fense of  contemporary  English  writers,  he  takes  for  granted 
that  they  are  to  be  judged  in  general  by  the  classical  rules 
formulated  by  the  French.  Reference  is  made  to  Shakespeare, 
and  his  genius  commended ;  but  as  a  technical  artist  Ben 
Jonson  is  considered  his  superior.  The  argument  is  that 
Jonson  and  those  who  have  followed  his  example  in  English 
have  conformed  to  the  classical  standards  quite  as  rigidly 
as  the  great  French  dramatists.  Dryden  argues  also  for  the 
heroic  couplet  as  the  most  satisfactory  verse  form  for  tragedy. 
A  few  years  later.  Pope  put  the  classical  ideas  into  poetic 
form  in  his  Essay  on  Criticism.  A  few  quotations  will 
illustrate  its  prevailing  ideas  —  the  dependence  on  rules, 
the  emphasis  upon  form,  the  appeal  to  reason  and  restraint : 


CLASSICISM  267 

"Be  Homer's  works  your  study  and  delight : 
Read  them  by  day,  and  meditate  by  night." 

"Learn  hence  for  ancient  rules  a  just  esteem ; 
To  copy  nature  is  to  copy  them." 

"Those  rules  of  old  discovered,  not  devised, 
Are  nature  still  but  nature  methodized." 

"True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dress'd : 
What  oft  was  thought,  but  ne'er  so  well  expressed." 

"True  ease  in  writing  comes  from  art,  not  chance." 

"Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside." 

"A  Boileau  still  in  right  of  Horace  sways." 

Later  Criticism.  —  Addison's  critical  essays  in  The  Spec- 
tator follow  the  same  lines,  though  he  departed  from  conven- 
tional notions  in  praising  Milton,  whom  the  classicists, 
in  general,  neglected,  and  especially  in  commenting  with  fa- 
vor on  the  old  l^allad  literature  as  illustrated  in  Chevy  Chace. 
As  the  century  advanced  the  critical  formulas  became  less 
rigid.  Dr.  Johnson  praised  Shakespeare,  and  refused  strict 
adherence  to  the  rules  for  the  three  dramatic  unities.  A  little 
later  Thomas  and  Joseph  Warton  paid  tribute  to  Spenser, 
the  greatest  of  early  romanticists,  in  their  Observations  on 
the  Faerie  Queene.  This  book  led  the  critical  revolt  against 
classicism.  The  last  important  critical  work  of  the  classicists 
was  Burke's  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Our 
Ideas  on  the  Sublime  and  the  Beautiful. 

Suggested  Readings^ 

Pope  :     The  Rape  of  the  Lock. 

Addison  and  Steele  :     The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers. 

1  Except  where  special  editions  are  mentioned,  the  works  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Pocket  Series  of  English  Classics,  published  by  The  Macmillan 
Company. 


268  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Defoe :     Robinson  Crusoe,  or  The  Journal  of  the  Plague  Year. 

Swift :     Gulliver's  Travels. 

Johnson :  Life  of  Pope  in  The  Lives  of  the  Poets.  (Cassell's 
National  Library.) 

Goldsmith  :  Tlie  Deserted  Village,  She  stoops  to  Conquer,  Retalia- 
tion, The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

Sheridan :     The  Rivals. 

Burke  :     Speech  on  Conciliation  vnth  America. 

Ir\dng  :     Life  of  Goldsmith. 

Thackeray :   Henry  Esmond. 


CHAPTER  XII 

ROMANTICISM 
(a)    POETRY 

Romanticism  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  —  Although  the 
spirit  of  classicism,  with  its  emphasis  upon  reason  and  com- 
mon sense,  and  with  its  interest  in  literary  form  over  sub- 
ject matter,  was  in  control  in  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was 
not  the  only  influence  at  work.  Side  by  side  with  it  were 
other  interests,  growing  in  importance  through  the  century, 
until,  in  the  end,  they  became  the  dominant  forces,  and 
resulted  in  the  great  outburst  of  romanticism  in  the  early 
nineteenth  century. 

Influence  of  Spenser.  —  One  of  the  first  of  the  new  in- 
fluences was  a  renewed  interest  in  the  older  English  writers, 
especially  Spenser  and  Milton.  The  earliest  interest  was  in 
poetic  form  merely.  Although  the  prevailing  meter  was  the 
heroic  couplet,  still  the  Spenserian  stanza  —  consisting  of  nine 
lines,  eight  iambic  pentameter  lines  supplemented  by  one 
iambic  hexameter  or  Alexandrian,  riming  ababbcbcc  —  was 
used  to  a  limited  extent  from  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury. At  first,  however,  it  was  employed  only  for  pur- 
poses of  satire,  with  no  effort  to  get  the  atmosphere  of  mystery 
and  romance  or  the  rich  melody  of  the  verse.  The  first  poet 
to  get  the  real  Spenserian  manner  was  Shenstone.  He  began 
a  satire  called  The  Schoohnistress  in  the  Spenserian  stanza, 
studying  Spenser  as  he  wrote.      He  soon  became  genuinely 

269 


270  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

interested,  and  before  his  poem  was  finished,  he  had  changed 
it  into  a  sincere  Spenserian  imitation. 

James  Thomson  (1700-1748)  also  imitated  Spenser  sym- 
pathetically in  The  Castle  of  Indolence.  Compare  the  fol- 
lowing stanza  from  Thomson  with  the  stanza  from  Spenser 
quoted  on  page  222. 

"A  pleasing  land  of  drowsy-head  it  .was, 
Of  dreams  that  wave  before  the  half-shut  eye ; 
And  of  gay  castles  in  the  clouds  that  pass, 
Forever  flusliing  round  a  summer  sky  : 
There  eke  the  soft  delights,  that  witchingly 
Instil  a  wanton  sweetness  through  the  breast ; 
And  the  calm  pleasures  always  hovered  nigh ; 
But  whate'er  smacked  of  noyance  or  unrest. 
Was  far,  far  off  expelled  from  this  delicious  nest." 

The  Wartons,  by  their  Observations  on  the  Faerie  Queene, 
increased  the  appreciation  of  Spenser. 

The  Influence  of  Milton.  —  Milton  also  was  imitated  both 
in  form  and  thought.  .  The  octosyllabic  couplet  of  II  Pense- 
roso  and  later  the  blank  verse  of  Paradise  Lost  were  used  by 
Parnell,  Joseph  and  Thomas  Warton,  and  others ;  and  this 
mood  of  "  meditative  comfortable  melancholy  "  —  the  II 
Penseroso  mood  —  gave  rise  to  an  entire  school  of  "  grave- 
yard poetry,"  of  which  Robert  Blair's  The  Grave  and  Edward 
Young's  Night  Thoughts  are  examples,  and  of  which  Thomas 
Gray's  An  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard  is  the  most  finished 
product. 

Romance.  —  A  second  tendency  away  from  classicism 
was  a  new  interest  in  medieval  ideas  and  customs.  Horace 
Walpole,  the  model  of  fashion,  started  the  interest  by  build- 
ing a  Gothic  castle  on  Strawberry  Hill,  and  gathering  to- 
gether there  a  collection  of  antiquities.  He  also  wrote  a 
medieval  romance  full  of  mystery  and  superstition.     This 


ROMANTICISM  271 

romance,  The  Castle  of  Otranto,  was  the  forerunner  of  a  long 
series  of  stories,  of  which  Clara  Reeve's  The  Old  English 
Baron,  Ann  Radeliffe's  The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  and 
Matthew  Gregory  Lewis's  Monk  are  rather  crude  examples, 
and  of  which  the  novels  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  are  the  artistic 
climax. 

Ballads.  —  The  old  ballads  and  romances  also  came  into 
vogue.  As  early  as  1711  Addison  spoke  favorably,  though 
conservatively,  of  Chevy  Chace,  and  Bishop  Percy  firmly  estab- 
lished the  ballad  interest  by  the  publication  of  the  Reliques 
of  Ancient  Poetry  in  1765.  The  old  manuscript  which 
formed  the  basis  of  Percy's  book  was  found  b}-  chance  in  the 
house  of  a  friend.  Percy  discovered  it  under  an  old  bureau, 
where  it  had  been  carelessly  thrown,  after  some  of  the  leaves 
had  been  torn  away.  He  read  the  manuscript  with  much 
interest,  and  after  consultation  with  his  friends,  decided  to 
print  it  along  with  a  number  of  modern  songs.  The  volume 
contains  a  fairly  representative  selection  of  the  older  ballads : 
heroic  ballads  like  Robin  Hood,  historical  ballads  like  Chevy 
Chace  and  Sir  Patrick  Spence,  romance  ballads  like  Lord 
Thomas  and  Fair  Annet.  The  Reliques  of  Ancient  Poetry 
was  followed  by  the  collections  of  Ritson,  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  others.  The  freshness  and  simplicity  of  these  old  ballads 
delighted  all  those  who  were  becoming  tired  of  the  conven- 
tions and  artifices  of  classicism. 

Northern  Antiquities.  —  Bishop  Percy  is  responsible  for 
another  epoch-making  book  entitled  Northern  Antiquities 
(1770),  which  was  translated  from  a  French  work  written 
by  Paul  H.  Mallet,  professor  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen. 
This  book  gives  an  account  of  the  weird  northern  mythology, 
and  contains  translations  from  the  Old  Norse  literature.  Its 
influence  in  England  is  best  seen  in  the  poetry  of  Thomas 
Gray,   especially   in    The   Descent   of  Odin   and    The   Fatal 


272  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Sisters.  The  same  interest  in  the  somber,  mysterious,  and 
weird  is  illustrated  in  James  Macpherson's  Ossian,  a  story 
developed  out  of  scraps  of  legend  which  ]\Iacpherson  had 
picked  up  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland.  To  the  same  general 
movement  belong  Robert  Evans's  Some  Specimens  of  the 
Poetry  of  the  Ancient  Welsh  Bards,  Collins's  Ode  on  the  Popular 
Superstitions  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  Thomas 
Chatterton's  Rowley  Poems,  inspired  by  manuscripts  which 
he  found  in  the  old  church  of  St.  ^lary  Redcliffe  in  Bristol. 

Renewed  Interest  in  Nature.  — ^  A  third  romantic  tendency 
was  the  renewed  interest  in  nature  and  in  country  life.  The 
classicists  loved  the  city.  Their  only  interest  in  nature 
came  from  classical  books,  or  from  artificial  gardens  mathe- 
matically laid  out.  Gradually,  however,  there  grew  up  an 
interest  in  real  English  woods  and  fields  and  streams.  People 
began  to  seek  relaxation  in  the  country,  and  came  to  enjoy 
nature  in  her  rural  state.  The  most  important  nature  poems 
of  the  middle  eighteenth  century  are  James  Thomson's 
(1700-1748)  Seasons  and  William  Cowper's  (1731-1800)  The 
Task.  Thomson  was  reared  in  the  countrj^ ;  Cowper  spent 
most  of  his  life  there.  Both  loved  nature  sincerely.  Thom- 
son had  the  wider  interest ;  but  Cowper  was  a  more  accurate 
observer,  and  had  the  advantage  of  writing  with  his  eye 
upon  the  object  to  be  described.  Cowper  had  less,  too,  of 
the  conventional  poetic  phraseology  of  the  classical  school. 
Both  men,  however,  show  a  marked  departure  from  the 
manner  of  the  classicists. 

The  French  Revolution.  —  The  French  Revolution  fur- 
nished still  another  impetus  to  romanticism.  It  stimulated 
Englishmen  to  throw  off  the  restraint  of  convention ;  to  be- 
come more  independent  of  laws,  customs,  and  traditions ;  to 
assert  individuality.  Tt  created  a  discontent  with  the  world 
as  it  was,  and  stimulated  the  imagination  to  dwell  upon  the 


ROMANTICISM  273 

ideal  human  state.  The  influence  was  both  doctrinal  and 
emotional.  WilHam  Godwin's  Political  Justice  introduced 
into  England  the  doctrines  of  the  French  Revolution ;  the  be- 
lief in  simplicity,  the  reliance  on  natural  impulse  as  opposed  to 
reason  and  common  sense,  and  the  faith  in  tlie  perfectability 
of  the  human  race,  if  it  could  be  freed  from  the  restraints 
of  customs  and  conventions,  of  religion  and  laws.  This  book 
had  a  large  influence  upon  the  romantic  poets,  especially 
upon  Shelley,  Godwin's  son-in-law.  But,  independent  of 
doctrines,  the  whole  outburst  in  France  in  favor  of  liberty, 
equality,  and  fraternity  aroused  the  enthusiasm  of  young 
Englishmen,  and  helped  emphasize  in  literature  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  emotions.  It  called  attention  to  the  poor  and 
lowly ;  it  evoked  interest  in  the  simple  and  fundamental 
things  of  life. 

Robert  Burns.  —  By  far  the  most  popular  of  the  early 
romantic  poets  was  Robert  Burns  (1759-1796),  a  poor  Scotch 
farmer  with  an  impulsive  nature,  rich  in  emotions,  and  with 
a  remarkable  genius  for  song.  He  voiced  the  loves  and  sor- 
rows of  the  simple  poor  with  rare  truth  and  intensity.  His 
democratic  ideas,  his  large  human  sympathy,  his  love  of 
nature,  especially  of  animals  and  flowers,  his  hatred  of  cant 
and  hypocrisy,  his  rich  humor  —  all  united  to  give  him  a 
deservedly  wide  popularity.  His  moral  fiber,  however, 
was  weak.  He  lived  a  pathetic  life,  struggling  desperately 
for  daily  bread,  giving  himself  over  to  dissipation,  and  dying 
in  poverty  and  bitter  neglect.  One  stanza  of  his  epitaph 
written  by  himself  should  be  remembered. 

"The  poor  inhabitant  below 

Was  quick  to  learn,  and  wise  to  know. 
And  keenly  felt  the  friendly  glow  and  softer  flame, 
But  thoughtless  follies  laid  him  low 
And  stain'd  hi.s  name," 

T 


274  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

His  Poetry.  —  The  best  poem  of  Burns  on  the  virtues  of 
the  Scotch  peasant  is  The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night.  Humor 
prevails  in  The  Jolly  Beggars  and  Tarn  o'  Shanter.  The 
most  exquisite  nature  touches  are  found  in  To  a  Mountain 
Daisy  and  To  a  Mouse.  The  most  striking  patriotic  song  is 
Scots  wha  ha'  wi'  Wallace  Bled;  the  most  tender  love  songs: 
Green  Grows  the  Rashes  0,  John  Anderson  my  Jo,  To  Mary 
in  Heaven,  and  The  Banks  o'  Doon.  The  most  famous  poem 
on  equality  and  democracy  is  A  Man's  a  Man  for  a'  That. 
In  these  poems  particularly  Burns  shows  his  great  qualities 
as  a  poet:  downright  sincerity,  intensity  of  emotion,  keen- 
ness and  vigor  of  mind. 

Wordsworth.  Peasant  Poetry.  —  William  Wordsworth 
(1770-1850)  was,  like  Burns,  a  poet  of  the  poor  and  the 
lowly.  He  believed  that  among  the  lower  classes  the  most 
simple  and  fundamental  human  emotions  were  to  be  found 
at  their  best.  Michael,  his  most  popular  poem  of  this  kind, 
is  a  simple  story  of  a  Westmoreland  peasant  who  is  compelled 
to  send  his  onl}'  son  away  from  home  to  make  a  living.  The 
boy  falls  into  evil  ways  in  the  city,  and  is  finally  forced  "  to 
seek  a  hiding  place  beyond  the  sea,"  leaving  the  old  man  to 
wear  out  his  life  in  poverty  and  sorrow.  The  story  is  re- 
markable for  its  simple  pathos.  It  shows  how  Wordsworth, 
when  at  his  best,  could  lift  the  commonplace  into  genuine 
poetry. 

Nature  Poetry.  —  But  Wordsworth  was  preeminently 
the  romantic  poet  of  nature.  He  spent  nearly  all  his  life  of 
eighty  years  in  the  lake  and  mountain  region  of  Westmore- 
land and  Cumberland,  developing  in  the  midst  of  quiet 
surroundings  that  poise  of  mind  and  serenity  of  spirit  which 
were  his  chief  gifts  to  his  age.  His  ideas  about  nature  were 
peculiar.  As  a  boy,  he  loved  her  just  for  the  sake  of  her 
beauty  and  for  the  sake  of  the  physical  joy  of  healthy  out- 


ROMANTICISM  275 

door  life ;  but,  as  he  grew  older,  he  saw  her  deeper  meaning. 
He  believed  in  the  spiritual  kinship  between  man  and  nature. 
Nature  seemed  to  him  the  language  of  the  divine;  and  he 
thought  it  was  his  mission  as  poet  and  seer  to  interpret  the 
meaning  of  that  language.  In  this  he  was  more  romantic 
than  Thomson  or  C'owper,  or  indeed,  than  any  of  the  nature 
poets  who  had  preceded  him. 

His  theory  of  nature  is  expressed  in  Lines  Composed  a  Few 
Miles  above  T intern  Abbey: 

"For  nature  then  [in  boyhood] 
*  *  *  *  *  ^ 

****** 

To  me  was  all  in  all.  —  I  cannot  paint 

What  then  I  was.     The  sounding  cataract 

Haunted  me  like  a  passion ;  the  tall  rock, 

The  mountain,  and  the  deep  and  gloomy  wood. 

Their  colours,  and  their  forms  were  then  to  me 

An  appetite ;  a  feeling  and  a  love. 

That  had  no  need  of  a  remoter  charm, 

By  thought  supplied,  nor  any  interest 

Unborrowed  from  the  eye.  —  That  time  is  past, 

And  all  its  aching  joys  are  now  no  more, 

And  all  its  dizzy  raptures.     Not  for  this 

Faint  I,  nor  mourn,  nor  murmur ;  other  gifts 

Have  followed  ;  for  such  loss,  I  would  beUeve, 

Abundant  recompense.     For  I  have  learned 

To  look  on  nature,  not  as  in  the  hour 

Of  thoughtless  youth ;  but  hearing  often  times 

The  still,  sad  music  of  humanity. 

Nor  harsh  nor  grating,  though  of  ample  power 

To  chasten  and  subdue.     And  I  have  felt 

A  presence  that  disturbs  me  with  the  joy 

Of  elevated  thoughts ;   a  sense  sublime 

Of  something  far  more  deeply  interfused, 


276  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Whose  dwelling  is  the  light  of  setting  smu^ 
And  the  round  ocean  and  the  living  air, 
And  the  blue  sky,  and  in  the  mind  of  man ; 
A  motion  and  a  spirit,  that  impels 
All  thinking  things,  all  objects  of  all  thought, 
And  rolls  through  all  things.     Therefore  am  I  stiU 
A  lover  of  the  meadows  and  the  woods, 
And  mountains ;   and  all  that  we  behold 
From  this  green  earth  ;   of  all  the  mighty  world 
Of  eye,  and  ear,  —  both  what  they  half  create. 
And  what  perceive ;   well  pleased  to  recognize 
In  nature  and  the  language  of  the  sense. 
The  anchor  of  my  purest  thought,  the  nurse, 
The  guide,  the  guardian  of  my  heart,  and  soul 
Of  all  my  moral  being." 

Wordsworth's  Speculations.  —  Wordsworth  delighted  in 
mysterious  and  mystical  speculations.  Spiritual  facts  some- 
times appeared  to  him  more  real  than  physical  facts.  The 
physical  world  seemed  a  kind  of  prison  house  confining 
spirits  which  had  belonged  to  a  larger  life,  and  which  would 
return  to  that  larger  life  when  released  from  the  flesh.  His 
boldest  speculative  poem  is  perhaps  Intimations  of  Immor- 
tality, of  which  the  following  stanza  contains  the  central 

idea : 

"Our  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting  : 
The  Soul  that  rises  with  us,  our  life's  Star, 
Hath  had  elsewhere  its  setting. 

And  cometh  from  afar ; 
Not  in  entire  forgetfulness. 
And  not  in  utter  nakedness. 
But  trailing  clouds  of  glory  do  we  come 

From  God,  who  is  our  home : 
Heaven  lies  about  us  in  our  infancy  ! 
Shades  of  the  prison-house  begin  to  close 
Upon  the  growing  Boy, 


ROMANTICISM  277 

But  he  beholds  the  Hght,  and  whence  it  flows, 

He  sees  it  in  liis  jo.y; 
The  Youth,  who  daily  farther  from  the  east 

Must  travel,  still  is  Nature's  Priest, 

And  by  the  vision  splendid 

Is  on  his  way  attended ; 
At  length  the  Man  perceives  it  die  away, 
And  fade  into  the  light  of  common  day." 

Moral  Ideas.  —  The  lofty  moral  ideas  of  Wordsworth  are 
further  expressed  in  The  Prelude  and  in  The  Ode  to  Duty. 
The  Prelude  is  an  autobiographical  account  of  the  growth 
of  the  poet's  mind.  It  is  not  significant  as  a  piece  of  literary 
art,  but  very  important  in  the  understanding  of  the  poet's 
personality.  Tlie  Ode  to  Duty  is  remarkable  for  its  high  moral 
enthusiasm,  expressed  with  great  dignity  and  restraint. 

Wordsworth's  Sonnets.  —  Wordsworth  is  also  one  of  the 
greatest  sonnet  writers  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
limitations  of  the  form  seem  to  have  helped  rather  than  to 
have  hindered  his  imagination.  Among  the  best  of  his 
sonnets  are  To  Milton,  It  is  a  Beautiful  Evening,  Westminster 
Bridge,  The  World  is  too  Much  with  Us. 

Coleridge's  Poetic  Method.  —  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge 
(1772-1834)  was  the  most  intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth 
during  the  years  when  the  best  poetry  of  each  was  written. 
Their  first  public  venture  in  poetry.  The  Lyrical  Ballads 
(1798),  was  planned  as  a  joint  production,  though,  in  the  end, 
the  only  important  contribution  of  Coleridge  was  The  Rime 
of  the  Ancient  Mariner.  The  poetical  methods  of  the  two 
men,  however,  differed  widely.  Wordsworth's  idea  was 
to  take  real  and  commonplai^e  incidents  as  subjects,  and  lift 
them  by  means  of  his  reflective  imagination  into  the  realm 
of  poetry.  Coleridge's  aim  was  to  take  the  most  mysterious, 
superstitious,  and  improbable  incidents,  and  by  detailed  and 


278  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

specific  treatment  make  them  seem  real.  All  that  was  weird 
and  mysterious  and  improbable  in  the  old  ballads  and  ro- 
mances stimulated  Coleridge's  imagination ;  he  loved,  too, 
their  simplicity  and  naivete.  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient 
Mariner  and  Christabel  illustrate  medieval  luxuriance  of 
imagination  wrought  into  finished  poetry  by  the  conscious 
artist.  The  Ancient  Mariner,  moreover,  is  in  the  ballad 
meter,  and  shows  many  of  the  tricks  of  the  ballad  style. 
Other  notable  ballads  are  The  Dark  Ladie  and  The  Three 
Graves.  The  dreamy  and  intangible  ciuality  of  imagination 
is  at  its  height  in  Kubla  Khan,  an  oriental  dream  picture, 
which  defies  analysis,  but  charms  by  its  rhythmic  imagery. 
There  is  a  magic  quality  about  Coleridge  at  his  best  which 
has  never  been  equaled. 

Loss  of  Poetic  Power.  —  Unfortunately,  however,  his 
poetic  output  was  not  great.  He  lacked  the  power  of  sus- 
tained and  protracted  poetic  effort,  his  mind  turned  to  phil- 
osophic speculation,  and  he  lost  what  he  called  his  "  shaping 
spirit  of  Imagination."     In  Dejection:  an  Ode,  he  says  : 

"There  was  a  time  when,  though  my  path  was  rough, 

This  joy  within  me  daUied  with  distress. 
And  all  misfortimes  were  but  as  the  stuff 

Whence  Fancy  made  me  dreams  of  happiness : 
For  hope  grew  romid  me,  like  the  twining  vine. 

And  fruits,  and  foliage,  not  my  own,  seemed  mine. 
But  now  afflictions  bow  me  down  to  earth  : 

Nor  care  I  that  they  rob  me  of  my  mirth ; 
But  oh  !  each  \'isitation 
Suspends  what  nature  gave  me  at  my  birth, 

My  shaping  spirit  of  Imagination. 
For  not  to  think  of  what  I  needs  must  feel, 

But  to  be  still  and  patient,  all  I  can ; 
And  haply  by  abstruse  research  to  steal 

From  my  own  nature  all  the  natural  man  — 


ROMANTICISM  279 

This  was  my  sole  resource,  my  only  plan ; 
Till  that  whi(!h  suits  a  part  infects  the  whole, 
And  now  is  almost  grown  the  habit  of  my  soul." 

Revolutionary  Poems.  —  Both  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth 
were  influenced  by  the  French  Revolution,  but  only  in  an 
emotional  way.  Both  were  by  nature  too  religious  to  accept 
the  materialism,  atheism,  and  anarchy  of  the  revolutionary 
doctrines ;  consequently  as  soon  as  the  excesses  in  Franco 
became  prominent,  both  repudiated  the  movement.  Words- 
worth took  refuge  in  nature ;  Coleridge,  in  philosophical 
speculation.  Among  Coleridge's  revolutionary  poems,  The 
Destruction  of  the  Bastile  is  an  early  outburst  of  emotional 
sympathy ;  the  Ode  on  the  Departing  Year  is  a  reproach  of 
England  for  joining  the  coalition  against  France.  France: 
an  Ode  is  a  bitter  recantation.  When  liberty  in  France  had 
drifted  into  tyranny,  and,  mad  for  conquest,  had  overthrown 
the  freedom  of  Switzerland,  Coleridge  turned  away  in  bitter- 
ness and  disgust. 

"Forgive  me.  Freedom  !  0  forgive  those  dreams  1 

I  hear  thy  voice,  I  hear  thy  loud  lament. 

From  bleak  Helvetia's  icy  caverns  sent  — 
I  hear  thy  groans  upon  her  blood-stained  streams. 

Heroes,  that  for  your  peaceful  country  perished, 
And  ye  that,  fleeing,  spot  your  mountain  snows 

With  bleeding  wounds  :  forgive  me  that  I  cherished 
One  thought  that  ever  blessed  your  cruel  foes  ! 

To  scatter  rage  and  traitorous  guilt 

Where  Peace  her  jealous  home  had  built ; 

A  patriot-race  to  disinherit 
Of  all  that  made  their  stormy  wilds  so  dear 

And  with  inexpiable  spirit 
To  taint  the  bloodless  freedom  of  the  mountaineer  — 
0  France,  that  mockest  Heaven,  adulterous,  blind, 

And  patriot  only  in  pernicious  toils  ! 


280  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Are  these  thy  boasts,  Champion  of  human  kind  ? 

To  mix  with  Kings  in  the  low  lust  of  sway, 
Yell  in  the  hunt,  and  share  the  murderous  prey ; 
To  insult  the  shrine  of  Liberty  with  spoils 

From  freedom  torn ;  to  tempt  and  to  betray  ?  " 

Shelley's  Revolutionary  Poems.  —  A  more  genuine  child 
of  the  Revolution  was  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  (1792-1822). 
He  was  a  rebel  from  the  very  beginning,  chafing  under  every 
form  of  restraint.  At  school,  he  was  called  "  mad  Shelley, 
the  atheist."  In  early  manhood,  when  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Godwin,  he  accepted  the  revolutionary  doc- 
trines entire.  Thus  it  happened  that,  unlike  Wordsworth 
and  Coleridge,  he  represents  the  revolution  on  both  its  doc- 
trinal and  emotional  sides.  He  believed  profoundly  that 
all  the  woes  of  men  were  to  be  traced  to  the  tyranny  of 
priests  and  kings.  If  man  could  only  do  away  with  govern- 
ments and  religions,  and  start  the  world  afresh  along  lines  of 
absolute  freedom,  the  race  could  be  educated  into  a  state  of 
perfection.  Queen  Mob,  his  earliest  revolutionary  poem, 
is  a  fierce  denunication  of  priests  and  kings.  The  Revolt 
of  Islam  is  a  story  of  heroic  sacrifice  in  the  cause  of  liberty. 
His  most  characteristic  work,  however,  is  Prometheus  Un- 
bound. It  is  a  revision  of  the  old  classical  myth  according  to 
which  Prometheus,  the  champion  of  mankind  against  the 
tyranny  of  Zeus,  has  been  chained  to  a  rock  on  Mount 
Caucasus,  from  which  torment  Zeus  is  determined  not  to 
free  him,  unless  he  will  tell  the  secret  upon  which  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  power  of  Zeus  depends.  The  old  myth 
relates  that  Prometheus  finally  tells  the  secret,  and  is  set 
free.  Shelley  changes  the  myth  to  suit  his  revolutionary 
ideas.  Prometheus  represents,  not  the  deliverer  of  mankind, 
but  mankind  itself,  bending  under  the  tyranny  of  priests 
and  kings.     He  will  not  yield.     Furies  torment  him  with  the 


ROMANTICISM  281 

thought  that  all  efforts  of  the  past  for  the  good  of  mankind 
have  been  turned  to  evil;  hut  spirits  of  heroic  action,  self- 
sacrifice,  wisdom,  imagination,  and  love  comfort  him.  In 
the  fullness  of  time  Demagorgon  (Necessity)  hurls  tyranny 
from  the  throne.  Asia,  who  represents  the  spirit  of  love  in 
nature,  is  united  to  Prometheus,  the  spirit  of  man,  and  the 
golden  age  begins.  The  last  act  is  a  series  of  lyrics,  cele- 
brating the  age  of  perfect  justice  and  peace.  The  poem 
shows  Shelley's  hatretl  of  tyranny,  and  his  sublime  faith  in  a 
perfected  humanity  ruled  everywhere  by  love.  Its  weak- 
ness is  that  it  gives  no  light  on  how  the  result  is  to  be  brought 
about. 

Shelley  not  a  Constructive  Thinker.  —  Indeed  Shelley 
was  not  a  constructive  thinker ;  he  was  a  lyric  poet.  His 
sense  of  fact  was  not  strong.  He  deals  less  with  the  practical 
actualities  of  life  than  any  of  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
an  uncompromising  idealist,  with  a  sublime  faith  in  the  future 
of  mankind ;  but  the  visions  which  his  faith  pictured  were 
unaccompanied  by  serious  thought  of  how  those  visions  were 
to  be  realized.  However,  the  wealth  of  his  imagination  and 
the  rich  music  of  his  verse  gave  his  ideas  enduring  artistic 
form. 

"  Adonais."  —  His  poetry  is  of  the  elusive,  etherial  quality 
almost  baffling  to  the  commonplace  mind.  Even  his  nature 
imagery  has  to  do  with  evanescent  forms,  the  wind,  the 
cloud,  the  voice  of  the  unseen  nightingale  or  skylark.  This 
air  of  unreality  is  well  illustrated  in  Adonais,  his  elegy  on  the 
death  of  John  Keats.  Those  who  come  to  weep  over  the 
bier  are  Urania  (Heavenlj^  Love),  Splendors,  Glooms,  Hours, 
Destinies,  and  even  the  lovely  Dreams  which  have  emanated 
from  the  poet's  brain  in  life.  Shelley  has  been  well  called  the 
poet's  poet. 

The    Poetry    of    Scott.  —  Sir    Walter    Scott    (1771-1832) 


282  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

represents  primaril}'  the  influence  of  the  old  ballads  and 
romances.  From  a  child,  he  was  familiar  with  all  the 
legendary  lore  of  the  Scotch,  and  later  published  a  large  col- 
lection of  old  border  ballads  under  the  name.  Minstrelsy  of 
the  Scottish  Border.  His  first  original  productions  were 
metrical  romances,  the  meter  being  suggested  by  Coleridge's 
Christabel.  The  best  are  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  (1805) 
a  tale  of  Scottish  border  life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Marmion, 
A  Tale  of  Flodden  Field  (1808),  and  The  Lady  of  the  Lake 
(1810),  a  story  of  the  Scottish  highlands  at  the  time  of  James 
V  of  Scotland.  Of  these,  Marmion  is  the  most  swift  and 
powerful ;  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  the  richest  and  most  charm- 
ing. These  poems  made  Scott  for  a  time  the  most  popular 
literary  man  in  the  British  Islands,  and  the  Scott  countr}^ 
still  remains  one  of  the  most  popular  of  literary  pilgrimages. 

Qualities  of  his  Poetry.  —  His  poetry  was  not  so  deeply 
imaginative,  not  so  artistically  finished,  as  the  poetry  of 
Wordsworth  and  Coleridge.  Scott  was  interested  primarily 
in  the  pageantry  of  life.  His  romantic  scenery  is  picturesque, 
his  characters  bold  and  wholesome,  his  story  spirited  and 
borne  along  on  a  rapid  and  buoyant  verse.  There  is  much 
brilliant  declamation. 

Byron's  Romanticism.  —  After  the  triumph  of  The  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  Scott's  fame  as  a  poet  began  to  decline,  his  place 
in  the  popular  favor  being  taken  by  Lord  Byron  (1788-1824). 
Byron's  early  poetry  shows  the  influence  of  classicism. 
English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers,  for  instance,  is  written 
in  rimed  couplets  and  in  the  manner  of  eighteenth-century 
satire.  But  he  soon  developed  marked  romantic  tendencies. 
His  tales  of  Oriental  life.  The  Giaour,  The  Bride  of  Abydos, 
The  Corsair,  Lara,  etc.,  are  lurid  and  extravagant.  Childe 
Harold  is  a  story  of  travel,  written  in  Spenserian  stanzas, 
and  recounting  journeys  in  Portugal,  Spain,  Illyria,  Greece, 


ROMANTICISM  283 

Turkey,  the  Rhine  Countrj',  and  Italy.  It  is  full  of  brilliant 
description,  enriched  by  literary  and  historical  allusions. 
Its  mood  is  somber,  passionate,  rebellious.  Harold,  the 
protagonist,  is  a  typical  romantic  figure,  fleeing  from  the  real 
world  to  find  solace  in  solitude. 

Byron  a  Poet  of  Revolution.  —  Byron  was  the  prince  of 
radicals  and  revolutionists.  He  became  for  all  Europe  the 
prophet  of  liberty,  voicing  better  than  any  one  else  the  rev- 
olutionary feeling  which  smoldered  everywhere  after  the 
failure  of  the  French  Revolution.  Less  of  a  doctrinaire 
than  Shelle}' ,  he  yet  had  a  supreme  contempt  for  all  manner 
of  restraint,  and  a  passionate  love  of  liberty.  Add  to  this 
an  oratorical  method  free  from  all  refinements  and  subtleties, 
and  the  reason  for  his  wide  popularity  is  explained.  His 
dramas  Manfred  and  Cain  are  characteristic  revolutionary 
pieces.  Manfred  is  a  kind  of  Faust,  living  high  up  in  the 
Alps  in  gloomy  and  letter  isolation,  scornful  of  his  fate. 
Cain,  the  first  murderer,  is  pictured  as  an  heroic  rebel  against 
the  tyranny  of  God.     He  is  one  of  those 

"Souls  who  dare  to  look  the  Omnipotent  tyrant  in 
His  everlasting  face,  and  tell  him  that 
His  evil  is  not  good." 

Byron  has  been  called  the  chief  example  of  the  "  Satanic 
School  of  Poetry." 

"  The  Prisoner  of  Chillon."  —  His  most  finished  poem  is 
The  Prisoner  of  Chillon,  the  pathetic  recital  of  a  Swiss  patriot 
who  has  been  released  from  a  dungeon  after  years  of  imprison- 
ment, having  seen  his  two  brothers,  who  were  imprisoned 
with  him,  die  in  their  chains,  and  find  graves  beneath  the 
floor  of  the  dungeon. 

Byron's  Satires.  —  Byron  was  also  a  satirist,  the  only  one 
of  the  great  romantic  poets  to  win  fame  in  this  form  of  art. 


284  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

His  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers  is  a  clever  attack 
upon  the  critics  and  poets  of  his  time.  The  Vision  of  Judg- 
ment is  directed  against  the  poet  Southey,  who  had  aroused 
Byron's  ire  by  praising  George  III.  Don  Juan,  the  most 
famous  of  all,  is  a  comprehensive  satire  on  modern  society. 
Byron  ruthlessly  exposes  the  social  corruption  hidden  be- 
neath the  conventional  veneer.  The  work  is  licentious 
but  brilliant.  It  is,  of  all  Byron's  poems,  the  most  complete 
expression  of  his  strange  personality. 

John  Keats  (1796-1821)  occupies  a  place  apart  from  his 
fellow-romanticists.  He  took  almost  no  interest  in  the 
problems  of  his  own  time.  His  poetic  inspiration  came 
almost  exclusively  from  the  classical  and  medieval  past. 
Most  of  his  information  about  Greek  story  and  mythology 
came  out  of  the  classical  dictionary,  for  he  could  not  read 
the  Greek  language ;  yet  somehow  he  gained  a  sympathetic 
appreciation  of  the  Greek  spirit.  At  the  same  time,  he  knew 
and  loved  medieval  romance  with  all  its  imaginative  luxuri- 
ance. The  combination  of  the  classical  and  the  romantic 
in  his  nature  made  him  unique  in  his  time.  Emlymion  is 
a  classical  theme  treated  with  romantic  extravagance. 
Lamia,  too,  is  rich  in  romantic  coloring.  Isabella  and  The 
Eve  of  St.  Agnes  are  medieval  themes.  The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes 
has  been  called  an  "  unsurpassed  example  of  the  pure  charm 
of  colored  and  romantic  narrative  in  English  verse."  Hy- 
perion shows  the  Miltonic  influence ;  it  is  an  example  of 
"  the  grand  style  in  poetry."  His  great  odes,  especially  the 
Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn  and  the  Ode  to  a  Nightingale,  have  rare 
beauty  and  finish.  Indeed,  Keats  worshiped  beauty.  His 
poetic  creed  is  expressed  at  the  end  of  the  Ode  on  a  Grecian 
Urn: 

"Beauty  is  truth,  truth  beauty,  this  is  all 
We  know  on  earth  and  all  we  need  to  know." 


Isabella  and  the  Pot  of  Basil. 
After  the  painting  by  Hohnan  Hunt. 


ROMANTICISM  285 

The  second  volume  he  published  began  with  the  line 
"A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joj^  forever." 

Keats  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-five ;  yet  he  left  work  of 
such  rare  excellence  that  it  has  had  a  profound  influence  upon 
subsequent  verse. 

(b)  PROSE 

As  the  age  of  reason  and  common  sense  was  preeminently 
an  age  of  prose,  so  the  age  of  imagination  and  emotion  was  an 
age  of  poetry.  Still,  romanticism  had  its  stories  in  prose  and 
its  essays.  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  the  great  exponent  of  the 
prose  romance.  When  his  poetic  inspiration  began  to  abate, 
and  Byron  threatened  to  take  away  his  popularity,  Scott 
turned  to  the  writing  of  prose  stories,  and  published  Waverley, 
the  first  of  the  so-called  Waverley  Novels.  He  did  not  con- 
tinue the  realistic  traditions  of  Richardson  or  Fielding,  but 
set  himself  rather  to  develop  the  method  of  Mrs.  Radcliffe 
and  "  Monk  "  Lewis,  looking  back  to  the  Middle  Ages  for 
inspiration,  exploiting  the  mystery  and  superstition  and 
high  adventure  of  that  romantic  past.  He  played  upon  it  all, 
however,  with  the  hand  of  an  artist,  so  that,  although  Mrs. 
Radcliffe  and  her  school  are  now  ridiculous,  Scott  still  re- 
mains one  of  our  great  English  masters. 

Scott's  Prose  Romances.  —  His  romances  may  be  divided 
into  two  general  classes :  one  pertaining  to  the  medieval  past 
of  England ;  the  other,  to  the  past  of  Scotland.  Iimihoe  is 
a  story  of  the  time  of  the  crusades ;  Kenilworth,  of  the  time 
of  Queen  Elizabeth.  These  represent  the  English  past. 
Old  Mortality  treats  of  the  Scotch  Covenanters.  Other 
Scotch  romances  are  Guy  Mannering,  The  Heart  of  Mid- 
lothian, Rob  Roy. 

Scott's  Method.  —  Scott  placed  the  emphasis  on  pag- 
eantry and  adventure.     To  be  sure,  the  characters  are  often 


286  STUDIES    IN   LITERATURE 

fine  typical  figures  :  Bailie  Jarvis  in  Rob  Roy,  Jeanie  Deans 
in  The  Heart  of  Midlothian,  Meg  Merrilies  in  Guy  Mannering 
are  vivid  Scotch  portraits.  Yet  we  are  interested  not  so 
much  in  their  character  as  in  their  fortunes  ;  and  not  so  much 
in  the  meaning  of  life  as  in  its  outward  show.  Scott's 
chief  purpose  was  to  entertain.  He  was  not  a  romanticist 
of  the  Byron  or  Shelley  type ;  he  had  no  radical  tendencies, 
political  or  social ;  he  did  not  feel  the  tyranny  of  conven- 
tional life.  He  had  just  a  fascinating  interest  in  the  past  of 
England  and  Scotland  and  knew  how  to  make  its  pageantry 
and  high  adventure  live  again.  He  exploited  the  simple 
and  fundamental  aspects  of  romance. 

Wordsworth's  Critical  Writings.  —  The  romantic  school 
also  developed  a  literature  of  criticism.  Wordsworth,  in 
his  famous  prefaces  to  the  various  editions  of  The  Lyrical 
Ballads,  took  direct  issue  with  the  classicists.  First,  he  in- 
sisted that  the  passions  were  the  subject  matter  for  poetry. 
Poetry,  to  him,  was  not  a  mechanical  process,  but  "  the  spon- 
taneous overflow  of  the  feelings,"  modified,  to  be  sure,  by 
reflection,  but  generated,  not  manufactured.  He  spoke  of 
poetry  as  "  emotion  recollected  in  tranquillity."  Secondly, 
he  believed  that  the  poor  and  the  lowly  are  fitter  subjects 
for  poetry  than  the  great,  because  among  the  plain  people 
the  simple  and  fundamental  emotions  are  to  be  found  in  the 
greatest  sincerity  and  truth.  In  the  third  place,  he  dis- 
carded the  old  doctrine  of  poetic  diction,  going  so  far  as  to 
claim  that  the  language  of  poetry  differs  in  no  essential 
particular  from  the  language  of  prose.  In  the  fourth  place, 
he  insisted  upon  the  imagination  as  the  shaping  power  of 
poetry. 

Coleridge  as  a  Critic.  —  Coleridge,  in  his  Biographia 
Literaria  and  other  critical  and  philosophical  works,  agreed 
in  general  with  Wordsworth,  except  in  the  matter  of  poetic 


ROMANTICISM  287 

diction.  He  emphasized  especially  the  function  of  the 
imagination,  which  he  explained  and  defended  according  to 
the  principles  of  German  idealism.  He  laid  much  stress  upon 
a  distinction  between  "reason"  and  "understanding,"  the 
"  reason  "  being  a  peculiarly  high  power  of  the  mind  to  grasp 
truth  which  cannot  be  explained  by  the  common  "under- 
standing." Carlyle  spoke  of  Coleridge's  ideas  as  "  philo- 
sophical moonshine,"  and  there  may  be  truth  in  the  remark 
as  far  as  abstract  philosophical  speculation  is  concerned ; 
yet  Coleridge's  criticisms  of  particular  pieces  of  literature, 
such  as  his  comments  on  Shakespeare,  are  highly  apprecia- 
tive and  illuminating.  Indeed  his  present  rank  as  a  critic 
is  very  high,  perhaps  among  the  world's  great  five  or 
six. 

The  Critical  Reviews.  —  This  period  was  also  the  period 
oi  the  great  critical  reviews:  The  Edinburgh  Review,  The 
Quarterly  Review,  and  Blackwood's  Magazine.  The  most 
influential  contributors  were  Francis  Jeffrey  and  Professor 
John  Wilson.  They  were  acknowledged  authorities.  Their 
criticism  was  keen  and  penetrating,  but  often  bitterly  dog- 
matic, the  result  of  mere  personal  opinion  and  prejudice. 
It  was  against  Jeffrey  in  particular  that  Byron's  English 
Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers  was  directed. 

Appreciative  Criticism.  —  William  Hazlitt  (1784-1859) 
and  Charles  Lamb  (1775-1834)  were  more  sympathetic 
critics.  They  made  criticism  "  a  kind  of  romance  in  the 
world  of  books."  Lamb  was  an  especially  sympathetic 
critic,  a  lifelong  friend  of  Coleridge,  a  defender  of  Words- 
worth and  the  new  poetic  school,  an  enthusiastic  admirer 
of  the  older  romantic  literature  of  the  Elizabethan  time. 
His  Specimens  of  Early  English  Dramatists,  with  critical 
comments,  displays  a  wide  and  discriminating  reading  in 
Shakespeare's  contemporaries.     It  did  much  to  revive  the 


288  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

fame  of  the  lesser  dramatists,  whom  the  classicists  had  almost 
entirely  neglected. 

Lamb  as  a  Critic  of  Life.  —  But  Lamb  was  cjuite  as  much  a 
critic  of  life  as  a  critic  of  literature.  He  lived  year  in  and 
year  out  in  London,  a  close  and  sympathetic  obser^^er  of  men 
and  manners.  Moreover,  he  saw  everything  in  the  light  of 
the  ciuaint  humor  of  his  own  character  and  in  the  light  of 
the  touching  pathos  of  his  own  simple,  heroic  life.  His  keen 
sympathy  and  quaint  style  have  made  him  one  of  the  most 
charming  of  English  essayists.  His  Essays  of  Elia  and  Last 
Essays  of  Elia  are  his  most  popular  books.  Among  the 
individual  essays.  Old  China,  A  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig, 
and  Dream  Children  illustrate  very  well  the  delicacy  of  his 
dreamy  imagination,  the  quaintness  of  his  humor,  and  the 
sincerity  of  his  pathos. 

Thomas  De  Quincey.  —  In  Thomas  De  Quincey  (1785- 
1859)  the  romantic  element  is  even  more  pronounced.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  converts  to  the  ideas  of  Wordsworth 
and  Coleridge,  and  lived  neighbor  to  Wordsworth  for  twenty 
years  at  Grasmere.  There  he  read  a  prodigious  number  of 
books,  ate  vast  quantities  of  opium,  and  dreamed  the  most 
glorious  and  most  terrible  dreams.  His  Confessions  of  an 
Opium  Eater  is  an  extended  autobiography  from  his  earliest 
recollections  down  to  the  time  when  he  became  an  absolute 
slave  of  the  opium  habit  (1819).  Susperia  de  Profundis 
(Sighs  from  the  Depths),  a  sequel  to  The  Opium  Eater, 
tells  of  the  wandering  of  his  mind  when  under  the  spell  of 
the  drug.  It  is  a  gloomy  and  terrible  series  of  dreams,  of 
which  Lavana  and  Our  Ladies  of  Sorrow  is  the  most  widely 
known.  The  English  Mail  Coach  is  also  a  dream  product. 
It  relates  that,  when  De  Quincey  was  riding  one  night  on 
the  top  of  His  Majesty's  mail,  the  coach  collided  with  a  frail 
carriage  containing  a  pair  of  lovers.     The  horror  and  anguish 


ROMANTICISM  289 

of  the  catastrophe,  especially  the  vision  of  the  girl  in  terror 
of  death,  entered  into  his  dreams,  appearing  again  and  again 
in  unexpectod  and  weird  dream  combinations. 

De  Quincey's  Critical  Works.  —  The  most  important  of 
De  Quincey's  critical  works  are  On  the  Knocking  at  the 
Gate  in  Macbeth  (1823),  Murder  Considered  as  a  Fine  Art 
(1827),  and  Literary  Reminiscences.  The  Reminiscences 
contain  appreciations  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Lamb, 
Shelley,  Keats,  and  other  literary  figures  of  the  Romantic 
School,  many  of  whom  De  Quincey  knew  personally  and  in 
some  cases  intimately. 

De  Quincey's  Style  —  De  Quincey's  style  is  luxuriant  and 
full  of  romantic  coloring  —  highly  imaginative  prose.  The 
range  of  his  vocabulary  was  exceeded  only  by  that  of  Shake- 
speare and  Milton,  and  he  used  that  vocabulary  with  the 
finest  precision.  His  style  is  richly  figurative,  and  moves  along 
with  a  stately  rhythm  which  gives  it  many  of  the  emotional 
qualities  of  verse.  The  diff  useness  of  his  writing,  however,  is 
often  irritating  to  the  reader  who  is  impatient  of  digressions. 
De  Quincey  often  stops  for  incidental,  even  trivial  remarks, 
and  is  sometimes  led  far  afield  by  his  wayward  fancy.  It 
has  been  well  said  of  him :  "  He  illustrates  both  the  defects 
and  the  virtues  of  the  romantic  temper;  its  virtues  in  the 
enkindled  splendor  of  his  fancy  and  the  impassioned  sweep 
of  his  style ;  its  defects  in  his  extravagance,  his  unevenness, 
his  failure  to  exercise  adequate  self-criticism." 

Suggestions  for  Reading^ 

Gray  :   Eleqy  in  a  Country  Church  Yard. 

Burns :   Poems. 

Carlyle  :   Essay  on  Burns. 

'  All  these  readings  may  be  found  in  the  Pocket  Series  of  English  Classics 
published  by  The  Macmillan  Company. 
V 


290  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

Coleridge :    The  Ancient  Mariner,  Kubla  Khan,  and  Christabel. 
Wordsworth :  Shorter  Poems. 
Byron :   Childe  Harold,  Books  III  and  IV. 
SheUey  and  Keats  :  Selections  from  Shelley  and  Keats. 
Lamb:    "Old   China,"  "A   Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig,"   and 
"  Dream  Children  "  in  Essays  of  Elia. 
De  Quincey  :  The  English  Mail  Coach. 
Scott :   Marmion,  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Ivanhoe,  Kenilworth. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  VICTORIAN  ERA 

Characteristics  of  the  Victorian  Era.  —  We  have  seen  that, 
in  the  age  of  classicism,  the  emphasis  in  literature  was  placed 
upon  reason  and  common  sense.  The  primary  appeal  was 
to  the  intellect.  Imagination  and  emotion  had  an  incidental 
place.  In  the  Romantic  period  the  reverse  was  true.  Imagi- 
nation and  emotion  were  emphasized.  Reason  and  common 
sense  often  gave  way  to  extravagance  and  excess.  In  the 
Victorian  Era  both  influences  are  strong,  and  run  side  by 
side  throughout  the  century,  each  modifying  and  restraining 
the  excess  of  the  other.  The  literature  of  reason  is  less 
rigid  and  formal ;  the  literature  of  the  imagination,  less 
extravagant  and  unreal.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which  group 
is  of  greatest  importance  :  Macaulay,  Thackeray,  Darwin,  and 
George  Eliot ;  or  Carlyle,  Tennyson,  Browning,  and  Stevenson. 
Nor  is  it  always  easy  to  classify  authors,  for  the  two  streams 
of  influence  often  came  together,  particularly  in  the  greatest 
men.  The  case  is  not  so  easy  with  George  Eliot  and  Alfred 
Tennyson  as  with  Macaulay  and  Stevenson.  George  Eliot 
is  not  a  thoroughgoing  realist  in  spite  of  her  own  professions. 
(See  Part  I,  p.  16.)  Alfred  Tennyson's  romanticism  was 
much  modified  by  the  investigations  of  science  ;  he  accepted 
without  hesitation  the  principles  of  Evolution.  Yet  the 
prevailing  attitude  toward  life  of  Macaulay,  Thackeray,  Dar- 
win, and  George  Eliot  is  distinctly  intellectual ;  that  of  Car- 
lyle, Tennyson,  Browning,  and  Stevenson,  imaginative  and 

291 


292  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

spiritual.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the 
greater  the  writer,  the  harder  it  is  to  classify  him. 

Seeming  Decline  of  Romanticism.  —  At  the  time  of  the 
death  of  Scott  (1832),  the  great  romantic  impulse  seemed  to 
have  spent  itself.  Byron,  Shelley,  and  Keats  were  dead. 
Coleridge's  "  shaping  spirit  of  imagination  "  had* departed 
from  him,  and  he  wrote  but  little  great  poetry  afterward. 
Wordsworth's  best  work  was  already  done.  The  world 
seemed  sinking  back  into  a  commonplace,  matter-of-fact 
existence.  But  romanticism  only  changed  its  point  of  view ; 
it  did  not  die  out.  There  was  a  marked  revival  of  interest 
in  reason  and  fact,  but  it  did  not  entirely  displace  the  in- 
terest in  the  things  of  the  spirit.  At  the  very  beginning  of 
the  new  era,  each  interest  had  its  champion.  Thomas 
Babington  Macaulay  was  the  brilliant  intellectual  exponent 
of  the  things  of  the  sense,  the  world  of  affairs.  Thomas 
Carlyle  was  the  great  preacher  of  the  things  of  the  spirit, 
of  the  world  of  ideals. 

Macaulay  was  preeminently  a  man  of  affairs,  a  man  of  the 
most  brilliant  intellectual  powers,  but  of  meager  spirituality. 
He  was  a  member  of  parliament,  a  wit,  an  orator,  an  essayist, 
an  historian.  He  was  eminently  practical,  ready  to  accept 
things  as  they  were  and  make  the  best  of  them.  His  interest 
was  primarily  in  politics  and  government,  and  in  commerce 
and  industry.  His  chief  reliance  in  life  was  on  ballot-boxes 
and  machinery.  He  is  a  typical  exponent  of  the  practical 
and  purely  intellectual  side  of  nineteenth-century  life. 

Macaulay's  Prose  Works.  —  With  the  exception  of  The 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  —  celebrations  in  verse  of  the  ancient 
civic  virtues  of  the  Romans  —  Macaulay's  literary  work  was 
almost  exclusively  in  prose.  His  literary  fame  began  with 
the  essay  on  Milton,  published  in  The  Edinburgh  Review  in 
1825.     Other  literary  essays  are  those  on  Addison,  Bacon, 


Thomas  Carlyle. 

After  the  portrait  by  James  McNeil  Whistler. 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  293 

and  Dr.  Johnson,  all  of  whom  interested  him  hirgely  because 
they  were  in  touch  with  practical  everyday  life.  Among  his 
essays  and  addresses  on  public  men,  the  most  irn])ortant 
are  those  on  William  Pitt,  Lord  Clive,  and  Warren  Hastings. 
They  are  remarkable  for  clear  statements,  apt  illustrations, 
skillful  emphases,  strong  contrasts,  striking  antitheses, 
rapid  and  graphic  narration.  Biography  and  history  were 
his  specialties,  and  he  brought  to  them  a  breadth  of  reading 
and  a  power  of  memory  rarely  surpassed.  His  most  extensive 
work.  The  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  II, 
only  five  volumes  of  which  were  completed,  shows  Macaulay's 
prejudices,  and  is  full  of  exaggerations ;  yet,  because  of  its 
clear  and  brilliant  style,  it  took  hold  of  the  public  like  a  novel. 
Indeed,  it  was  Macaulay's  conscious  purpose  to  appeal  to 
the  novel  reading  public. 

Carlyle's  Philosophy  of  Life.  —  The  work  of  Thomas 
Carlyle  (1795-1881)  is  a  wild  protest  against  the  attitude 
toward  life  represented  by  Macaulay.  Carlyle  lifted  his 
voice  in  awful  warning  against  the  worship  of  machinery  and 
of  the  ballot-box.  He  could  not  accept  things  as  they  were 
with  mild  complacency,  because  he  thought  there  was  need 
of  radical  reform.  He  was  not  a  politician,  however,  but  a 
prophet  and  a  seer,  a  man  not  of  compromises,  but  of  ideals. 
Macaulay  was  interested  in  the  machinery  of  life ;  Carlyle, 
in  the  great  spiritual  forces  at  work  behind  the  machinery, 
without  which  the  machinery  would  be  dead.  Like  Cole- 
ridge, he  steeped  himself  in  German  idealism,  though  he  took 
his  idealism  not  from  the  abstract  philosophies,  as  Coleridge 
did,  but  from  the  more  concrete  literary  embodiments,  es- 
pecially from  the  works  of  Goethe ;  and  whereas  Coleridge 
was  the  first  expounder  of  German  idealism,  or  transcenden- 
talism, in  England,  Carlyle  was  its  great  propagandist. 
Carlyle's  ideas  are  best  expressed,  perhaps,  in  his  clothes- 


294  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

philosophy,  explained  at  length  in  Sartor  Resartus.  From 
one  point  of  view  this  book  is  an  attack  against  shams,  and 
a  plea  for  sincerity.  Laws,  customs,  social  forms,  even  reli- 
gious creeds  are  only  the  clothes  in  which  the  spirit  of  man 
arrays  itself.  The  great  realities  are  the  spiritual  realities. 
The  outward  forms  in  which  the  spirit  manifests  itself  are 
comparatively  unimportant.  Carlyle  complains  that  men 
forget  the  spirit,  and  foolishly  worship  the  forms.  The 
developing  spirit  of  man,  he  says,  outgrows  its  clothes ;  and 
when  outgrown',  the  old  clothes -should  be  cast  aside.  There 
is  nothing  sacred  about  laws  or  creeds.  As  long  as  they 
fitly  clothe  and  truthfull}^  represent  the  spirit,  well  and  good  ; 
but  when  they  have  become  outworn  or  outgrown,  away  with 
them.  Let  us  have  no  sham  customs,  no  sham  creeds. 
From  another  point  of  view,  the  book  is  constructive  rather 
than  destructive.  The  physical  universe  is  the  visible  gar- 
ment of  God  —  a  conception  of  nature  not  altogether  unlike 
AYordsworth's.  Behind  the  garment  is  the  genuine  spiritual 
reality.  Carlyle  considered  the  man  foolish  and  narrow  who 
thought  only  of  the  texture  and  style  of  the  garment,  and 
cared  not  to  know  the  personality  within. 

Carlyle's  Purposes.  —  All  this  is  plain  romantic  doctrine, 
but  Carlyle  is  trying  to  bring  to  it  a  clearer  moral  purpose. 
Like  the  earlier  romanticists,  he  repudiates  the  world's  old 
clothes ;  this  is  his  Everlasting  Nay.  But  he  would  not 
have  the  world  without  clothes.  Make  new  and  more 
suitable  clothes  for  the  human  spirit  and  weave  them  in  the 
loom  of  life;  this  is  his  Everlasting  Yea.  Here  emerges 
Carlyle's  Gospel  of  Work.  Carlyle  preaches  the  task  of  the 
nineteenth-century  idealism,  i.e.,  to  infuse  into  romanticism 
a  great  moral  purpose,  and  construct  a  livable  world  which  is 
at  once  both  ideal  and  real. 

History  and  Biography.  —  In  his  views  about  government, 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  295 

Carl}' le  was  not  genuinely  democratic,  and  in  this"  he  differs 
from  his  revohitionary  prc^deeessors.  One  of  his  cardinal 
doctrines  was  "government  by  the  best."  Democracy  he 
thought  to  be  "government  by  the  worst."  Carlyle  was 
a  hero  worshiper,  and  his  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship  is  one 
of  his  most  significant  books.  He  took  no  stock  in  the 
judgment  and  insight  of  the  masses.  To  him  the  real  prob- 
lem of  life  was  to  find  out  the  superior,  God-inspired  men,  the 
genuine  heroes,  and  to  follow  them.  Carlyle  is,  therefore, 
in  constant  search  of  great  personalities.  History,  to  him, 
was  but  a  series  of  biographies  of  great  men.  Like  Macaulay, 
most  of  his  work  has  to  do  with  biography  and  history.  Yet 
both  his  point  of  view  and  his  method  are  different.  JVIa- 
caulay  was  interested  in  what  men  did ;  Carlyle,  in  what  men 
actually  were.  One  emphasizes  events ;  the  other,  per- 
sonality. Macaulay's  History  of  England  is  a  well-planned, 
progressive  narrative  of  events.  Carlyle's  History  of  the 
French  Revolution  is  a  drama  in  which  great  personalities 
such  as  IVIirabeau  display  their  power  in  scenes  of  confusion. 
In  biography,  Carlyle's  work  is  far  more  sympathetic  and 
penetrating  than  Macaulay's,  as  a  comparison  of  their 
essays  on  Dr.  Johnson  shows.  The  History  of  Frederick  the 
Great  is  Carlyle's  most  stupendous,  perhaps  his  greatest 
biographical  work.  The  most  appreciative  and  sympathetic 
of  his  shorter  sketches  is  the  Essay  on  Burns. 

(a)   REALISM 

The  Realistic  Novel.  —  Carlyle's  protest  against  his  time 
was  vigorous  and  influential,  but  it  did  not  stop  realistic 
tendencies,  as  the  development  of  the  nineteenth-century 
novel  attests.  Back  in  the  romantic  period  Jane  Austen 
had  made  a  more  or  less  conscious  protest  against  the  ex- 
travagance of  Mrs.   RadcUffe  and  "  Monk  "  Lewis  in  her 


296  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

novels  of  manners,  Pride  and  Prejudice,  Sense  and  Sensibility, 
Mansfield  Park,  and  Emma.  And  now  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  effort  to  treat  everyday  life  in  the 
novel  is  further  emphasized  by  Charles  Dickens,  William 
Makepeace   Thackeray,    and   George   Eliot. 

Dickens's  Character  Creations. — Charles  Dickens  (1812- 
1870)  was  a  representative  everyday  Englishman.  He 
lived  very  close  to  the  public,  and  knew  well  how  to  repre- 
sent it  and  to  speak  for  it.  He  began  life  as  a  reporter,  and 
later  became  an  editor,  amateur  actor,  and  public  reader. 
As  reporter  he  studied  his  public,  as  actor  and  reader  he 
learned  how  to  play  upon  it.  Early  in  his  career  he  began 
to  write  sketches  of  London  life,  mostly  caricatures.  Urged 
on  by  their  success,  he  invented  the  "  Pickwick  Club," 
and  worked  out  a  large  book  of  sketches.  The  Pickwick 
Papers,  a  book  without  any  careful  plan,  but  full  of  comic 
figures.  Later,  he  conceived  grotesque  and  terrible  char- 
acters :  Fagin  and  Sykes  in  Oliver  Twist  (1838),  Quilp  in  Old 
Curiosity  Shop  (1841),  and  Madam  Defarge  in  A  Tale  of 
Two  Cities  (1859).  His  child  characters,  too,  are  famous, 
Little  Nell,  Oliver  Twist,  David  Copperfield,  pathetic  and 
abused  little  creatures.  The  stories  are  often  carelessly 
constructed ;  indeed,  many  of  them  were  written  and  pub- 
lished in  installments,  Dickens  himself  not  knowing  at 
the  beginning  how  the  story  was  to  end.  But  the  char- 
acters are  always  inimitable.  Dickens  was  a  great  showman, 
with  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  figures,  humorous  and 
pathetic,  vicious  and  innocent. 

Dickens  as  a  Reformer.  —  His  work  has  also  distinct 
moral  purpose.  Dickens  attacked  public  abuses,  and  sought 
to  redress  wrongs.  His  stories  aided  many  a  reform.  Oliver 
Twist  attacks  the  workhouse ;  Bleak  House,  the  chancery 
court;     Little   Dorrit,   the   debtor's  prisons.      Domhey   and 


THE    VICTORIAN    ERA  297 

Son  and  Nicholas  Nickieby  by  exposing  the  cruelties  prac- 
ticed in  English  schools,  helped  to  put  a  stop  to  the  shameful 
exploitation  of  innocent  children.  Indeed,  the  memory  of 
Dickens's  own  bitter  childhood  is  at  the  root  of  his  opposition 
to  social  injustice  and  of  his  zeal  for  reform.  It  is  easy  to 
find  fault  with  the  work  of  Dickens.  His  characters  are  not 
so  much  portraits  as  caricatures.  His  plots  are  often  form- 
less. Mistakes  in  English  may  be  found  on  almost  every 
page.  Yet  he  was  the  most  popular  writer  of  his  day,  and 
the  hundredth  anniversary  of  his  birth  hardly  finds  his  fame 
diminished.  He  lived  close  to  the  popular  life.  He  had 
rare  sympathy  and  insight.  He  knew  well  how  to  produce 
laught(n-  and  horror  and  tears. 

Thackeray's  Attitude  toward  Life.  —  William  Makepeace 
Thackeray  (1811-1863)  likewise  wrote  novels  of  real  life, 
but  his  point  of  view  differed  from  that  of  Dickens.  Dickens 
was  a  man  of  the  common  people ;  Thackeray,  of  the  draw- 
ing-room and  the  club.  Thackeray  was  the  easy-going 
satirist  of  social  life,  drawing  intellectual  inspiration  from 
the  classicism  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  represents 
the  common-sense  point  of  view  of  the  critical  clubman,  not 
caring  to  make  the  world  over,  but  accepting  it  as  it  is  with 
all  its  irregularities,  and  laughing  at  it  in  a  manner  a  little 
patronizing.  He  despises  hypocrisy  and  sham,  but  does  not 
employ  invective  as  Carlyle  does.  His  method  is  subtle, 
suggestive,  and  insinuating,  without  being  cynical.  He 
does  not  despise  human  nature  as  the  true  cynic  does,  but 
believes  rather  in  its  essential  worth.  The  simple  goodness 
of  Colonel  Newcome,  for  example,  is  treated  with  genuine 
sympathy,  though  not  with  the  frank  simplicity  of  Dickens. 
Thackeray  is  more  critical,  and  maintains  always  a  half- 
smiling  reserve. 

His  Novels.  —  Thackeray's  novels  show  a  thorough  knowl- 


298  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

edge  of  life  and  literature  in  the  eighteenth  and  early  nine- 
teenth centuries.  Henry  Esmond  and  its  sequel,  Tke 
Virginians,  picture  English  social  life  from  the  time  of 
Addison  to  the  time  of  the  war  for  American  independence. 
English  Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  shows  a  keen 
appreciation  of  the  literature.  Life  in  the  late  eighteenth 
and  early  nineteenth  century  is  treated  in  Pendennis,  The 
Newcomes,  and  Vanity  Fair.  The  development  of  these 
stories  is  desultory  and  haphazard,  Henry  Esmond  alone 
being  carefully  wrought  out.  The  characters,  too,  are  not  so 
carefully  analyzed  as  those  of  George  Eliot,  for  instance,  are. 
Thackeray  had  no  scientific  and  philosophical  ideas  of  novel 
writing,  no  elaborate  theorj^  of  realism,  no  set  of  principles. 
He  simply  had  a  clear  vision  and  a  critical  judgment,  a  genius 
for  significant  details,  a  chatty  and  confidential  manner.  He 
avoided  fundamental  spiritual  conflicts  and  problems;  but 
for  a  vivid  picture  of  English  social  manners  and  customs  in 
the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centurj^,  as  seen  from 
the  point  of  view  of  a  common-sense  man  of  the  world,  there 
is  perhaps  no  better  place  to  go  than  to  the  novels  of  Thack- 
eray. 

Henry  Esmond  shows  Thackeray  at  his  best.  Esmond  is 
a  character  of  dignity  and  worth,  an  honorable  and  loyal 
English  gentleman,  who  is  allowed  to  tell  his  own  story  from 
his  own  essentially  noble  point  of  view.  Moreover,  Thack- 
eray's sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  eighteenth  century  gives 
the  book  peculiar  reality  and  warmth.  "  The  vanished  world 
lives  for  us  in  character  and  in  episode ;  lives  with  a  dignity 
and  richness  of  conception  and  style  that  shows  Thackeray 
to  have  been,  when  he  chose,  the  greatest  artist  among  the 
English  novelists."  ^ 

George  Eliot's  Realism.  —  George  Eliot  (1819-1880)  took 
1  Moody  and  Lovett,  History  of  English  Literature. 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  299 

the  art  of  novel  writing  far  more  seriously  than  Thackeray 
did.  Thackeray  did  not  scorn  to  gossip  about  life.  George 
Eliot  strove  earnestly  to  interpret  it.  Her  stories  arose  for 
the  most  part  out  of  her  real  experiences,  and  her  charac- 
ters were  often  suggested  by  real  people.  Adam  Beds,  for 
example,  was  suggested  by  an  incident  in  the  life  of  her  aunt, 
who  was  the  original  of  Dinah  Morris,  the  woman  preacher. 
Mrs.  Poyser  is  supposed  to  have  traits  of  George  Eliot's 
mother.  Cabel  Garth  in  Middlemarch  is  like  her  father. 
There  is  much  that  is  autobiographical  in  Maggie  Tulliver 
in  The  Mill  on  the  Floss.  George  Eliot's  earlier  stories  of 
rustic  life  have  great  reality  and  freshness,  but  she  was  not 
content  to  give  us  a  mere  photograph  of  life.  She  must 
uncover  the  hidden  springs  of  action  and  discuss  moral  prob- 
lems as  an  ethical  teacher.  Not  content  with  surface 
reality,  she  must  interpret  the  obvious  facts  philosophically 
and  scientifically.  She  claimed  to  be  a  realist ;  and  so  she 
was  to  the  extent  that  she  gave  no  false  idea  of  life,  did  not 
exaggerate  life  for  effect,  or  color  it,  or  throw  it  out  of  true 
perspective.  But  her  books  are  not  mirrors  of  life.  Her 
sympathetic  imagination  plays  around  it  all,  and  facts  are 
always  used  for  a  conscious  moral  purpose.  Silas  Marner, 
for  instance,  treats  of  the  regeneration  of  character.  Har- 
dened and  embittered  by  unjust  suspicion,  Silas  is  later 
humanized  through  the  influence  of  love.  Love  will  heal 
a  morbid  nature,  is  the  theme.  The  story  also  illustrates 
the  law  of  life  that  "'  whatsoever  a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he 
also  reap."  Roniola  is  a  psychologic  study  of  the  degenera- 
tion of  character  in  Tito.  George  Eliot's  purpose  is  to  show 
that  ethical  law  is  as  inexorable  as  physical  law. 

Structure  and  Style.  —  In  structure  and  style,  George 
Eliot  was  more  painstaking  than  either  Dickens  or  Thack- 
eray.    Her  stories  were  first  thoughtfully  planned,  and  then 


300  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

carefully  elaborated.  Every  effect  was  calculated.  Espe- 
cially were  suspense  and  contrast  consciously  and  skillfully 
applied.  The  backgrounds  for  the  action  are  fully  devel- 
oped. The  characters  talk  with  absolute  realism.  The 
descriptions  of  Warwickshire,  where  her  early  novels  are 
localized,  are  painstakingly  exact.  The  language  of  rustic 
characters  like  Mrs.  Poyser  truly  smack  of  the  soil. 

The  novels  most  interesting  as  stories,  are  Adam  Bede, 
The  Mill  on  the  Floss,  and  Silas  Marner.  In  later  novels, 
the  philosophical  and  moral  purpose  interferes  with  the 
story  interest.  Romola  and  Middlcmarch  show  Eliot's  great 
learning,  but  lack  the  freshness  and  reality  of  her  early  work. 
Daniel  Deronda,  although  regarded  by  Eliot  as  her  greatest 
book,  is  too  analytical  and  moralizing  to  suit  most  readers 
of  fiction.  As  a  whole,  however,  her  books  represent  the 
highest  development  in  English  of  realistic  fiction  with  a 
purpose. 

Meredith's  Novels. —  George  Meredith  (1828-1909)  began 
to  write  as  early  as  George  Eliot,  but  his  books  did  not  find  a 
wide  public,  until  the  end  of  the  Victorian  Era.  Like  George 
Eliot  he  was  a  psychologist,  a  moralist,  and  interpreter  of  life. 
His  realism,  however,  is  not  so  pronounced  as  George  Eliot's. 
His  characters  are  not  always  so  clearly  individualized. 
Indeed,  as  in  The  Egoist,  they  are  often  frankly  presented 
as  types.  Nor  does  Meredith  always  take  pa-ins  to  have 
the  dialogue  true  to  life.  He  feels  that  his  men  and  women 
must  be  made  essentially  human,  but  he  cares  more  for  typi- 
cal than  for  individual  peculiarities,  and  is  willing  to  com- 
press his  dialogue  more  highly  and  weight  it  more  heavily 
with  meaning  than  would  be  possible  in  actual  life.  His 
thought,  too,  is  often  complicated  and  his  style  abrupt. 
But  to  the  practiced  reader  his  books  are  significant  and  stim- 
ulating.    He  teaches  his  moral  lessons  more  often  through 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  301 

comedy  than  through  tragedy,  making  vice  ridiculous  rather 
than  terrible.  His  most  notable  novels  are  The  Ordeal  oj 
Richard  Feverel  (1859),  Beauchamp's  Career  (1876),  The 
Egoist  (1879),  and  Diana  of  the  Crossways  (1885). 

The  Science  Movement.  —  A  further  realistic  movement 
which  influenced  profoundly  though  indirectly  the  literature 
of  the  Victorian  Era  is  the  development  of  science,  especially 
the  theory  of  evolution  as  made  known  to  the  world  by 
Charles  Darwin  in  The  Origin  of  Species  (1859).  Other 
scientific  writers  were  Lyell,  Huxley,  Tyndall,  and  Wallace. 
The  conclusions  of  geology  and  biology  which  the  work  of 
these  men  represent  changed  the  whole  conception  of  life. 
The  great  popular  preacher  of  the  movement  was  Huxley. 
His  Autobiography  and  Lay  Sermons,  Addresses,  and  Reviews 
are  free  from  learned  technicalities  and  are  carefully  and 
elaborately  exemplified  and  illustrated.  They  are  perhaps, 
for  the  general  reader,  the  clearest  and  most  readable  scien- 
tific books  of  this  period. 

(b)   IDEALISM 

Religious  Movements.  —  These  realistic  and  scientific 
tendencies,  however,  did  not  monopolize  the  thought  of  the 
period.  The  romantic  spirit  was  still  alive  and  active. 
The  German  idealism,  which  Coleridge  had  introduced,  and 
Carlyle  had  so  loudly  preached,  continued  influential.  At 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  Julius  Hare,  afterwards  arch- 
deacon, and  Frederick  Maurice,  preacher  and  writer,  formed 
the  center  of  a  group  of  so-called  Coleridgeans,  and,  more 
important  still,  at  Oxford  there  was  the  great  spiritual 
revival  known  as  The  Oxford  Movement.  Alarmed  at  the 
growing  materialism  of  English  thought,  at  the  prevailing 
mechanical  conception  of  life,  and  at  the  lack  of  spirituaHty 
in  the  church,  where  the  conventional  notions  of  the  eight- 


302  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

eenth  century  still  lingered,  a  group  of  men  under  the  leader- 
ship of  John  Henry  Newman  sought  to  bring  back  the  moral 
enthusiasm  and  spiritual  mystery  of  the  early  church. 

This  movement  owed  much  to  the  romanticists.  In  his 
Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua,  Newman  himself  tells  how  largely 
he  drew  inspiration  from  them  : 

"What  will  best  describe  my  state  of  mind  at  the  early  part  of 
1839,  is  an  Article  in  the  British  Critic  for  that  April.  .  .  .  After 
stating  the  phenomenon  of  the  time,  as  it  presented  itself  to  those 
who  did  not  sympathize  in  it,  the  Article  proceeds  to  account  for  it ; 
and  this  it  does  by  considering  it  as  a  re-action  from  the  dry  and 
superficial  character  of  the  religious  teaching  and  the  hterature  of  the 
last  generation,  or  century,  and  as  a  result  of  the  need  which  was 
felt  both  by  the  hearts  and  the  intellects  of  the  nation  for  a  deeper 
philosophy,  and  as  the  e\'idence  and  the  partial  fulfilment  of  that 
need,  to  which  even  the  chief  authors  of  the  then  generation  had 
borne  witness.  First,  I  mentioned  the  literary  influence  of  Walter 
Scott,  who  turned  men's  minds  in  the  direction  of  the  middle  ages. 
'  The  general  need,'  I  said, '  of  something  deeper  and  more  attractive, 
than  what  had  offered  itself  elsewhere,  may  be  considered  to  have 
led  to  his  popularity ;  and  by  means  of  his  popularity  he  re-acted 
on  his  readers,  stimulating  their  mental  thirst,  feeding  their  hopes, 
setting  before  them  visions,  which,  when  once  seen,  are  not  easily 
forgotten,  and  silently  indoctrinating  them  with  nobler  ideas,  which 
might  afterwards  be  appealed  to  as  principles.' 

"Then  I  spoke  of  Coleridge,  thus:  'While  history  in  prose  and 
verse  was  thus  made  the  instrument  of  Church  feelings  and  opinions, 
a  philosophical  basis  for  the  same  was  laid  in  England  by  a  very 
original  thinker,  who,  while  he  indulged  a  liberty  of  speculation 
which  no  Christian  can  tolerate,  and  advocated  conclusions  which 
were  often  heathen  rather  than  Christian,  yet  after  all  installed  a 
higher  philosophy  into  inquiring  minds,,  than  they  had  hitherto 
been  accustomed  to  accept.  In  this  way  he  made  trial  of  his  age, 
and  succeeded  in  interesting  its  genius  in  the  cause  of  Catholic 
truth.' 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  303 

"  Then  come  Southey  and  Wordsworth,  'two  living  poets,  one  of 
whom  in  the  department  of  fantastic  fiction,  the  other  in  that  of 
philosophical  meditation,  have  addressed  themselves  to  the  same 
liigh  principles  and  feelings,  and  carried  forward  their  readers  in 
the  same  direction.'  "  ' 

"Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua."  —  This  romantic  tendency  in 
NewTnan  led  him  to  the  love  of  mystery  and  the  spiritual 
longing  of  medieval  Christianity,  and  thence  to  the  faith  of 
the  primitive  church.  The  movement  which  he  championed 
drifted  into  a  stormy  theological  controversy,  and  finally 
collapsed,  Newman  and  some  of  his  followers  passing  over 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Still,  imaginative  and 
spiritual  interests  were  greatly  stimulated  and  literature 
incidentally  influenced,  though  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
hj'mns  like  Lead  Kindly  Light,  the  onlj'  direct  contribution 
to  genuine  literature  made  by  the  movement  is  the  auto- 
biography of  Newman,  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua.  Newman's 
theological  ideas  do  not  command  a  wide  popular  interest, 
but  his  strong  spiritual  personality  and  admirably  clear  and 
beautiful  style  make  his  book  an  undoubted  contribution  to 
real  literature. 

Arnold's  Attitude  toward  Life.  —  Matthew  Arnold  (1822- 
1888)  shows  both  romantic  and  classical  tendencies.  The 
mantle  of  Thomas  Carlyle  is  said  to  have  fallen  upon  him, 
but  he  wore  it  with  a  decided  difference.  Like  Carlyle 
he  hated  the  crass  materialism  of  his  time.  Those  w^ho  held 
the  machine  view  of  life,  who  relied  upon  ballot-boxes, 
steam-engines,  and  trade,  he  called  philistines,  enemies  of 
the  children  of  light ;  and  he  w^as  never  weary  of  inveighing 
against  them.  He  was  not,  however,  a  genuine  romanticist. 
Indeed,  his  whole  thinking  was  deeply  colored  wdth  classical 
ideas.     He  was  a   "  wanderer  between  two   w^orlds."     He 

'  Newman,  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua,  pp.  76-77. 


304  STUDIES    IN    LITERATURE 

had  romantic  inspirations,  but  revolted  against  romantic 
formlessness  and  extravagance.  Carlyle  prayed  for  light ; 
Arnold,  for  "  sweetness  and  light."  Carlyle  preached  the 
value  of  conduct.  Arnold  added  the  complementary  virtue 
of  open-mindedness,  reasonableness,  culture.  Culture,  "  the 
knowledge  of  the  best  which  has  been  thought  and  done  in 
the  world,"  was  to  Arnold  the  panacea  for  all  ills  —  the  road 
of  deliverance  in  religion,  politics,  education,  and  literature. 
This  classical  idea  of  the  well-rounded  nature,  perfect 
symmetry  of  life,  is  his  fundamental  doctrine.  He  fought 
the  narrow-mindedness  and  self-satisfaction  of  the  rising 
middle  class.  He  preached,  in  season  and  out  of  season, 
"  the  study  of  perfection."  These  ideas  are  clearly  devel- 
oped in  Culture  and  Anarchy  and  Literature  a7id  Dogma. 

Literature  vs.  Science.  —  In  education,  Arnold  was  a  great 
champion  of  the  study  of  literature,  ''  the  best  which  has 
been  thought  and  said  in  the  world."  He  was  jealous  of  the 
encroachments  of  what  he  called  the  "  instrumental  knowl- 
edges "  into  the  curriculum  of  the  schools.  He  thought  that 
literature  best  met  the  fundamental  demand  of  human  nature 
to  relate  knowledge  to  ''  the  sense  of  conduct  "  and  to  "  the 
sense  of  beauty."  He  believed,  therefore,  that  literature  and 
not  science  should  constitute  the  bulk  of  education  for  the 
majority  of  mankind,  and  he  entered  into  a  very  lively  con- 
troversy with  Huxley  upon  this  subject.  Huxley's  Science 
and  Culture,  originally  delivered  as  an  address  at  the  opening 
of  Sir  Josiah  Mason's  College,  Birmingham,  is  the  argument 
for  science.  Literature  and  Science,  one  of  Arnold's  American 
addresses,  contains  the  argument  for  literature. 

Arnold's  Literary  Criticism.  —  In  literary  criticism  also 
Arnold  sought  the  middle  way  between  the  real  and  the 
ideal.  He  appreciated  the  romantic  impulses,  but  was  not 
swept  away  by  passion  and  by  mystic  vision.     He  stood  for 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  305 

sanity,  "  sweet  reasonableness,"  moderation,  symmetry, 
balance.  His  first  famous  piece  of  criticism  is  his  essay 
On  Translating  Homer.  Among  his  best  critical  essaJ^s  are 
those  on  Wordsworth  and  Byron  in  Essays  in  Criticism,  and 
that  on  Emerson  in  Discourses  in  America.  Arnold  was  the 
literarj"  dictator  of  his  day. 

Arnold's  poetry,  likewise,  is  midway  between  the  classical 
and  the  romantic.  His  poems  are  never  extravagant  or 
mj'stical.  They  err  rather  in  the  direction  of  restraint. 
Arnold  tried  to  unite  romantic  feeling  with  classical  purity 
of  form  and  style.  Sohrab  ami  Rustum,  The  Scholar  Gypsy, 
and  Thyrsis  are  good  examples.  Dover  Beach,  a  beautiful 
and  exquisite  lyric,  shows  particularly  well  Arnold's  restraint 
in  the  treatment  of  nature.  Like  Wordsworth  he  loved 
the  sublime  calm  of  nature  as  opposed  to  the  turmoil  of 
human  life,  but  he  did  not  find  nature  so  full  of  moral 
meaning  as  Wordsworth  did.  Arnold's  view  was  more 
scientific. 

Arnold's  general  poetic  mood  is  melancholy  rather  than 
serene.  Unfortunately  he  had  no  great  message  of  inspira- 
tion and  faith.  Life  was  full  of  sadness,  renunciation,  and 
despair.  Dover  Beach  is  a  characteristic  expression  of  his 
prevailing  mood.  After  speaking  of  "  the  eternal  note  of 
sadness  "  in  the  wash  of  the  waves  on  the  beach,  he  continues : 

"Sophocles  long  ago 
Heard  it  on  the  ^Egean,  and  it  brought 
Into  his  mind  the  turbid  ebb  and  flow 
Of  human  misery  ;   we 
Find  also  in  the  sound  a  thought. 
Hearing  it  by  tliis  distant  northern  sea. 

"  The  Sea  of  Faith 
Was  once,  too,  at  the  full,  and  round  earth's  shore 
Lay  like  the  folds  of  a  bright  girdle  furl'd. 


306  STUDIES   IN.   LITERATURE 

But  now  I  only  hear 

Its  melancholy,  long,  withdrawing  roar, 

Retreating  to  the  breath 

Of  the  night-wind,  down  the  vast  edges  drear 

And  naked  shingles  of  the  world. 

"  Ah,  love,  let  us  be  true 
To  one  another  !  for  the  world  which  seems 
To  lie  before  us  like  a  land  of  dreams, 
So  various,  so  beautiful,  so  new, 
Hath  really  neither  joy,  nor  love,  nor  light, 
Nor  certitude,  nor  peace,  nor  help  for  pain ; 
And  we  are  here  as  on  a  darkling  plain 
Swept  with  confused  alarms  of  struggle  and  flight, 
Where  ignorant  armies  clash  by  night." 

Ruskin's  Writings  on  Art.  —  John  Ruskin  (1819-1900) 
was  likewise  a  mediator  between  the  ideal  and  the  real.  As 
we  have  already  seen,  one  of  the  most  striking  characteristics 
of  the  romanticism  of  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  its  moral  purpose,  the  effort  to  democratize  the  things  of 
the  imagination  and  the  spirit,  and  to  open  the  eyes  of 
commonplace  Englishmen  to  the  spiritual  meaning  of  life ; 
in  other  words  to  make  romanticism  practical.  Ruskin 
pushed  this  propaganda  with  something  of  the  intensity 
of  Carlyle,  of  whom  he  was  an  acknowledged  follower.  His 
early  energy  was  devoted  to  art.  Modern  Painters,  his  first 
book,  discusses  the  underlying  principles  of  landscape  paint- 
ing. The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture  and  Stones  of  Venice 
have  to  do  with  architecture.  Ruskin  believed  that  all 
genuine  art  has  its  source  in  the  moral  nature  of  the  artist, 
and  represents  the  moral  temper  of  the  nation  in  which  it  is 
produced.  His  mission  was  to  preach  the  spiritual  meaning 
of  art,  which  he  exalted  above  mere  technique.  He  did 
more  than  any  of  his  contemporaries  to  broaden  the  appre- 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  307 

ciation  of  art,  and  thus  to  temper  the  prevaiHng  materialism 
of  En}i;lish  thouglit. 

"  Unto  this  Last."  —  In  liis  later  life  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  larger  criticism  of  life.  During  his  study  of  art  he  had 
become  convinced  that  great  art  expresses  the  national  life, 
and  is  therefore  dependent  upon  the  health  and  beauty  of 
society  as  a  whole.  He  believed  that  the  debased  condition 
of  art  in  his  day  in  England  was  due  to  the  industrial  organi- 
zation of  society,  to  the  emphasis  upon  machinery,  to  the 
prevalence  of  purely  commercial  standards  of  life,  to  the 
worship  of  the  "  Goddess  of  getting-on."  He  therefore 
became  an  economic  and  social  reformer.  Unto  this  Last 
(1862)  contains  his  ideas  of  reform  in  political  economy. 
He  begins  with  the  central  idea  of  wealth,  and  inquires 
what  wealth  is.  The  real  wealth  of  a  nation,  he  says,  is  not 
money,  but  men.  A  man's  soul  is  more  important  than  his 
pocketbook.  A  political  economy  which  considers  only  the' 
accumulation  and  distribution  of  material  wealth,  neglect- 
ing the  human  element,  is  narrowing  and  debasing  to  the 
nation.  He  wishes  a  political  economy  which  shall  give 
attention  to  the  production  of  healthy,  happy,  useful  men. 
His  ideas  are  distinctly  socialistic.  He  pleads :  (1)  for 
government  training  schools  to  teach  young  men  and  women 
the  trades  by  which  they  shall  live,  in  addition  to  the  laws 
of  health  and  the  principles  of  justice ;  (2)  for  government 
farms  and  workshops,  where  the  necessaries  of  life  shall  be 
produced,  honest  work  demanded,  and  a  just  standard  of 
wages  maintained ;  (3)  for  a  government  guarantee  of  work 
for  the  unemployed ;  (4)  for  adequate  provision  for  the  sick 
and  the  aged.  Ruskin  did  much  to  emphasize  the  idea  of 
social  justice,  which  has  commanded  so  much  attention 
since  Ruskin's  time. 

Other  Works.  —  Ruskin's  most  popular  works  are  Sesame 


308  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

and  Lilies,  which  proclaims  the  gospel  of  spiritual  wealth, 
especially  as  deposited  in  books,  and  The  Crown  of  Wild 
Olive,  a  series  of  lectures  to  workingmen  on  Work,  Traffic, 
and  War.  Fors  Clavigera  contains  some  of  his  ripest  teach- 
ing. Prceterita,  his  autobiography,  gives  an  especially 
delightful  account  of  his  boyhood  and  youth. 

Tennyson's  Early  Poetry.  —  Each  of  the  writers  thus  far 
discussed,  Carlyle,  Arnold,  Ruskin,  Macaulay,  Dickens, 
Thackeray,  George  Eliot,  represents  some  important  phase 
of  nineteenth-century  literature,  but  none  of  them  represents 
the  age  more  completely  than  Alfred  Tennyson.  He  touched 
the  thought  of  the  time  at  many  points,  puzzled  over  its 
problems,  came  close  to  its  struggle  between  doubt  and  faith. 
His  early  tendencies  were  romantic :  he  was  brought  up  in 
the  country  under  all  the  influences  of  natui'e ;  his  young 
mind  was  steeped  in  ballad  and  romance ;  Byron  was  one  of 
his  j'outhful  idols.  Some  of  the  best  of  his  early  poems  such 
as  The  Lady  of  Shalott  and  Recollections  of  the  Arabian 
N'ights  have  all  the  atmosphere  of  pure  romance.  The 
Palace  of  Art  shows  his  relation  to  the  new  moral  tendencies, 
his  wish  to  be  a  teacher  as  well  as  a  singer.  The  volume  of 
1842  shows  even  finer  qualities  of  romance  in  Sir  Galahad, 
Sir  Launcelot  and  Queen  Guinevere,  and  Morte  d' Arthur. 
Classical  interests  are  shown  in  G^none,  The  Lotus  Eaters, 
and  Ulysses.  Already,  to  romantic  fervor  of  imagination 
and  atmospheric  charm  was  added  a  classical  sense  of  form 
and  finish.  A  tendency  to  treat  real  problems  of  life  appears 
in  The  Palace  of  Art,  St.  Simeon  Stylites,  and  The  Vision 
of  Sin.  The  Princess  (1845)  is  a  half-playful,  half-earnest 
contribution  to  the  question  of  the  higher  education  of 
women. 

Science  and  Faith.  —  At  the  same  time  Tennyson  was 
struggling  with  deeper  problems.     In  1833  his  dearest  friend, 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  309 

Arthur  Hallam,  died.  Grief  for  this  friend  brought  Tennyson 
face  to  face  with  the  mystery  of  death,  and  with  the  question 
of  immortahty.  It  plunged  him  into  the  midst  of  the  great 
nineteenth-century  struggle  between  science  and  faith. 
The  new  developments  of  science  in  the  direction  of  the 
principles  of  evolution  appealed  to  his  keen,  strong  intellect ; 
but  the  conclusions  of  science  seemed  to  destroy  some  of 
the  xrost  cherished  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith,  and 
Tennyson's  nature  was  profoundly  religious.  How  to  recon- 
cile science  and  faith  was  the  great  jjroblem  of  the  time.  It 
now  became  Tennyson's  personal  problem.  Did  the  truths 
of  science  actually  behe  revelation  and  deny  immortality? 
Could  he  accept  evolution,  and  still  maintain  his  Christian 
faith?  The  record  of  his  struggle  with  this  problem  and  what 
he  felt  to  be  a  triumphant  conclusion  is  given  in  In  Memoriam 
(1850),  a  series  of  lyrics  written  at  various  times  after  1833, 
showing  the  progress  of  his  experiences  from  grief  and  de- 
spair to  a  larger  human  sympathy  and  a  surer  Christian  faith. 
He  came  to  believe  that  scientific  truth  and  spiritual  truth 
are  not  antagonistic  but  complementary,  each  as  real  as  the 
other.  To  be  sure  new  scientific  truth  made  it  necessary  to 
modify  old  creeds,  but  it  did  not  destroy  spirituality  nor  re- 
move the  necessity  of  faith.  He  sums  up  this  belief  in  the 
introduction  to  In  Memoriam. 

"Strong  Son  of  God,  immortal  Love, 

Whom  we,  that  have  not  seen  thy  face, 
By  faith,  and  faith  alone,  embrace, 
Beliexang  where  we  cannot  prove ; 

"  We  have  but  faith  :  we  cannot  know  ; 
For  knowledge  is  of  tilings  we  see ; 
And  yet  we  trust  it  comes  from  thee, 
A  beam  in  darkness  :  let  it  grow. 


310  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

"  Let  knowledge  grow  from  more  to  more, 
But  more  of  reverence  in  us  dwell ; 
That  mind  and  soul,  according  well, 
May  make  one  music  as  before, 

"But  vaster." 

Estimates  of  ''  In  Memoriam."  —  In  Memoriam  is  the 
most  representative  poem  of  the  experience  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  All  recognize  this,  though  the  poem  has  come  to 
various  readers  with  varying  degrees  of  satisfaction  and 
finality.  Some  think  it  represents  only  the  inadequate  con- 
clusions of  a  bewildered  age,  and  speak  of  it  disparagingly 
as  representing  "  the  great  Victorian  compromise."  Others, 
like  Tennyson  himself,  have  seen  in  it  the  triumphant  rec- 
onciliation of  science  and  faith. 

"The  Idylls  of  the  King." — ^  Another  of  Tennyson's 
masterpieces,  thought  by  some  to  be  as  great  as  In  Memoriam, 
is  The  Idylls  of  the  King,  a  series  of  romances  on  the  Arthurian 
material,  which  has  haunted  the  imagination  of  Englishmen 
since  the  Norman  Conquest.  Here  again  the  moral  purpose 
of  nineteenth-century  romanticism  is  evident.  The  stories 
are  told  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  treating  modern  spirit- 
ual  problems.     Tennyson   says   in   the   dedication   to   the 

queen : 

"Accept  this  old  imperfect  tale. 
New-old,  and  shadowing  Sense  at  war  with  Soul ; 
Ideal  manhood  closed  in  real  man. 
Rather  than  that  gray  king,  whose  name,  a  ghost. 
Streams  like  a  cloud,  man-shaped,  from  mountain  peak. 
And  cleaves  to  cairn  and  cromlech  still ;  or  him 
Of  Geoffrey's  book,  or  him  of  Malleor's." 

The  poem  is  not  an  allegory  in  any  strict  sense,  but  the 
stories  are  so  modified  as  to  represent  the  great  struggle  in 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  311 

life  between  material  and  spiritual  forces  —  another  form 
of  the  theme  of  In  Memoriam. 

Theme  of  the  Idylls.  —  Tennj^son  was  interested  in  the 
Arthurian  legends  all  his  life.  As  a  boy  he  played  that  he 
was  a  Knight  of  the  Round  Table.  Among  his  earliest 
poems  was  The  Lady  of  Shalott  and  other  lyrics  on  Arthurian 
themes.  In  1842  came  Morte  cV  Arthur,  afterwards  to  be  made 
a  part  of  the  completed  Idylls  under  the  name  of  The  Passing 
of  Arthur.  At  first  he  was  interested  only  in  the  stories 
as  such.  Even  as  late  as  1859,  when  Enid,  Vivien,  Elaine, 
and  Guinevere  were  published,  his  idea  was  merely  to  pre- 
sent contrast  pictures  between  false  and  true  types  of  woman- 
hood. Not  till  1869  was  the  epic  character  of  the  series 
worked  out.  The  theme  was  then  developed  of  an  ideal 
society  gradually  destroj'ed  by  the  forces  of  sensu?ility  and 
mysticism.  The  influence  of  these  two  destructive  forces 
running  through  the  series  gives  the  unit}'  to  the  poem. 
Tennyson  took  the  middle  conservative  ground  between 
materialism  and  extravagant  romanticism.  The  Holy  Grail 
shows  how  his  ideas  differed  from  medieval  ideas,  or  even 
from  the  ideas  of  the  early  nineteenth-century  roman- 
ticists. The  duty  of  man  is  not  to  make  an  ideal  world  for 
himself  apart  from  real  life.  Tenn^'son's  ideal  is  neither 
ascetic  cr  mystical.  He  actually  condemns  the  quest  of 
the  Holy  Grail  as  a  following  after  wandering  fires,  when 
men  should  be  struggling  to  overcome  the  evil  in  the  world. 

Tennyson's  Spiritual  Triumph.  —  Essentially,  then,  Ten- 
nyson was  a  great  religious  poet.  He  preached  the  prac- 
tical application  of  religious  faith  to  modern  thought  and 
conduct.  He  had  a  positive  spiritual  message  for  a  time 
which  certainly  needed  such  a  message.  As  he  grew  old 
his  spiritual  experience  deepened  and  at  the  end  he  was  able 
to  say  triumphantly : 


312  STUDIES   IN   LITERATURE 

"I  have  climb'd  to  the  snows  of  Age,  and  I  gaze  at  a  field  in  the  Past, 
Where  I  sank  with  the  body  at  times  in  the  sloughs  of  a  low  desire. 
But  I  hear  no  yelp  of  the  beast,  and  the  man  is  quiet  at  last 
As  he  stands  on  the  heights  of  his  hfe  with  a  ghmpse  of  a  height 
that  is  higher." 

His  calm  departure  from  life  is  told  in  Crossing  the  Bar,  one 
of  his  last  poems. 

Robert  Browning.  —  Side  by  side  with  Tennyson  in  great- 
ness, though  not  so  popular  a  representative  of  his  age, 
stands  Robert  Browning  (1812-1889).  He,  too,  cherished 
romantic  traditions.  He  was  an  idealist  and  an  optimist, 
a  great  spiritual  poet,  a  poet  of  love  and  faith.  His  poetry 
is  not  so  easy  to  read  as  Tennyson's,  because  he  was  not  so 
great  a  master  of  style,  and  because  he  takes  so  much  for 
granted  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  who  must  read  between 
and  behind  the  lines,  before  a  poem  can  really  be  under- 
stood. He  had,  however,  a  more  vigorous  mind  and  an 
equally  high  moral  earnestness.  His  poetry  is  highly  stimu- 
lating to  many  who  see  in  Tennyson's  poems  more  beauty 
than  strength. 

His  Dramatic  Qualities.  —  Browning  was  more  dramatic 
than  Tennyson.  He  did  not  write  successful  stage  plays, 
but  he  was  very  keen  in  the  analysis  of  his  characters,  and 
very  successful  in  bringing  out  their  point  of  view  of  life 
in  dramatic  monologue.  My  Last  Duchess  illustrates  this. 
Only  one  person,  a  proud  medieval  duke,  speaks ;  but  both 
his  character  and  the  character  of  his  wife,  about  whom  he 
speaks,  are  made  perfectly  clear.  Moreover  between  and 
behind  the  lines  the  reader  sees  a  dramatic  situation  enacted. 

Browning's  range  was  wide.  His  characters  belong  to 
many  countries  and  to  various  periods  of  history.  His 
favorite  method  was  to  find  some  crisis  point  in  the  thinking 
of  an  entire  age,  imagine  it  as  the  crisis  point  in  the  experi- 


THE    VICTORIAN    ERA  313 

ence  of  an  individual,  and  then  cause  that  person  to  develop 
the  situation  in  monologue  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out 
Browning's  own  idea  of  the  meaning  and  worth  of  life.  Saul 
so  presents  the  old  Hebrew  vision  of  the  Messiah  as  to  bring 
out  Browning's  idea  of  the  significance  of  the  love  of  God  as 
revealed  in  Christ.  Cleon  treats  of  the  despondency  and 
vain  longing  of  the  Greek  mind  in  the  first  century  after 
Christ,  when  the  vitality  of  both  Greek  religion  and  Greek 
literature  had  passed  away.  The  theme  is  used  b}^  Brown- 
ing to  explain  the  weakness  of  the  pagan  conception  of  life, 
the  emptiness  of  life  without  Christian  ideals.  Andrea  del 
Sarto  treats  of  the  decadence  of  art  in  Italy,  when  painting 
was  no  longer  represented  by  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo, 
but  by  such  men  as  Andrea  del  Sarto,  a  painter  perfect  in 
techniciue,  but  with  no  large  inspiration;  an  artist  great  of 
execution,  but  small  of  soul.  The  situation  is  used  to  explain 
Browning's  idea  that  the  basis  of  great  art  is  in  character 
rather  than  in  skill,  that  no  artist  can  be  great  without 
spiritual  power.  The  same  method  is  seen  in  Caliban,  A 
Death  in  the  Desert,  Rabbi  Ben  Ezra,  and  many  other  poems. 
No  one  has  made  so  much  of  the  dramatic  monologue  as 
Browning, 

The  Ring  and  the  Book  is  his  longest,  perhaps  his  greatest, 
masterpiece.  In  it  he  has  transformed  the  crude  raw  material 
of  an  old  Italian  murder  trial  into  a  great  piece  of  art,  inter- 
preting profoundly  the  most  fundamental  passions  and  emo- 
tions. A  single  story  is  told  from  twelve  different  points 
of  view,  the  most  interesting  of  which  are  (1)  the  view  of  the 
husband,  who  defends  the  murder  of  his  wife,  (2)  the  view 
of  the  wife,  who  tells  her  story  from  her  deathbed,  (3)  the 
view  of  the  chivalrous  priest,  who  relates  how  he  tried  to 
rescue  the  wife  from  the  cruelty  of  her  husband,  and  (4)  the 
view  of  the  Pope,  who  gives  the  final  judgment  in  the  case. 


314  STUDIES   IN    LITERATURE 

Browning's  Fame.  —  Browning  was  slow  in  gaining  a 
public,  largely  on  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  his  style ; 
but  his  intense  and  positive  nature  at  last  won  an  influence 
unusually  strong  and  permanent.  "  The  robustness  of 
Browning's  nature,  its  courage,  its  abounding  joy  and  faith 
in  life,  make  his  works  a  permanent  storehouse  of  spiritual 
energy  for  the  race,  a  storehouse  to  which  for  a  long  time 
to  come  it  will  in  certain  moods  always  return.  In  an  age 
distracted  by  doubt  and  divided  in  will,  his  strong  unfalter- 
ing voice  has  been  lifted  above  the  perplexities  and  hesita- 
tions of  men,  like  a  bugle  call  to  joyous  battle  in  which  the 
victory  is  to  the  brave."  ^ 

Rossetti.  —  Romantic  traditions  were  further  continued 
in  the  Pre-Raphaelite  movement,  of  which  the  most  impor- 
tant literary  figures  are  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  and  William 
Morris.  As  the  name  Pre-Raphaelite  implies,  the  movement 
at  first  had  to  do  with  painting  rather  than  with  literature. 
The  aim  was  to  choose  ideal  and  even  mystical  subjects,  and 
then  paint  them  with  painstaking  attention  to  detail.  The 
school  stood  for  idealism  in  conception  and  realism  in  exe- 
cution. As  far  as  subject  matter  was  concerned,  inspiration 
came  from  the  poetry  of  Keats,  the  old  ballads  and  romances, 
and  the  mystical  religion  of  Dante  and  the  medieval  church. 
The  early  Pre-Raphaelites  were  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti, 
John  Francis  Millais,  and  Henry  Holman  Hunt.  Of  these 
only  Rossetti  became  prominent  in  literature.  He  was 
a  great  lover  of  Dante,  and  indeed  of  all  the  mystery  and  ro- 
mance of  the  Middle  Ages.  His  literary  work  consists 
largely  of  ballads  and  romances  with  the  exception  of  his 
great  sonnet  sequence.  The  House  of  Life.  His  most  pas- 
sionate ballads  are  Sister  Helen  and  The  King's  Tragedy. 
The  Blessed  Darnosel  illustrates  particularly  well  the  Pre- 

^  Moody  and  Lovett,  History  of  English  Literature. 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  315 

Raphaelitc  union  of  spirituality  in  conception  and  concrcte- 
ness  and  simplicity  in  the  treatment  of  detail.  As  might 
be  expected  of  a  painter-poet,  Rossetti's  poems  are  marked 
by  great  picturesque  beauty.  Many  of  them,  notably 
The  Blessed  Damosel  and  a  large  number  of  sonnets,  are 
companion  pieces  to  pictures  on  the  same  themes.  Rossetti's 
world  was  a  dream  world  richly  visualized. 

William  Morris  (1834-1896)  was  a  follower  of  Rossetti, 
though  not  so  mystical  a  thinker  nor  so  sensuous  an  artist. 
He  was,  however,  more  versatile  and  practical.  Besides 
being  a  painter  and  man  of  letters,  he  manufactured  artistic 
furniture  and  many  kinds  of  household  decorations  such  as 
wall  paper  and  tapestries.  He  also  founded  the  famous 
Kelmscott  Press  for  the  production  of  artistic  printing  and 
bookbinding.  His  poetic  career  began  in  true  romantic 
fashion  with  the  passionate  Defense  of  Guinevere,  which  was 
followed  by  a  long  series  of  romances  in  both  poetry  and  prose. 
The  Earthly  Paradise  is  a  collection  of  stories  in  verse  taken 
from  both  classical  and  Icelandic  myth  and  legend.  One 
of  the  most  spirited  and  sustained  is  The  Lovers  of  Gudrun, 
taken  from  an  old  Icelandic  saga.  Interest  in  the  literature 
of  the  North  is  further  attested  by  Sigurd  the  Volsung,  an 
epic  founded  on  one  of  the  old  sagas,  and  by  the  prose  ro- 
mances. The  House  of  the  Woljings,  The  Story  of  the  Gliiter- 
ing  Plain,  and  The  Roots  of  the  Mountains.  Later  in  life 
Morris  became  a  socialist.  The  Dream  of  Johi  Ball  and 
News  from  Nowhere  are  romances  having  to  do  with  the 
problem  of  an  ideal  social  state. 

Stevenson's  Romances.  —  At  the  close  of  the  Victorian 
Era  three  important  forms  of  literature  were  represented 
by  three  significant  men :  the  prose  romance,  by  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson ;  poetry,  by  Algernon  Charles  Swinburne, 
and  criticism,   by  Walter  Pater.     Robert   Louis  Stevenson 


316  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

(1850-1894)  wrote  a  small  amount  of  poetry,  notably 
poems  of  child  life ;  but  most  of  his  work  was  in  prose. 
He  was  primarily  a  story-teller  who  avoided  the  moral 
strenuousness  of  his  age  and  reverted  to  the  old  romantic 
stories  of  adventure  represented  by  the  writings  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  Treasure  Island  is  a  tale  of  piracy  and 
search  for  hidden  treasure.  Kidnapped  and  David  Balfour 
relate  the  adventures  of  a  youth  who  is  kidnapped  and  sent 
to  sea  that  he  may  be  deprived  of  his  inheritance,  and  who, 
after  shipwreck  and  wandering,  returns  at  last  to  claim  and 
secure  his  rights.  The  New  Arabian  Nights  is  a  collection 
of  fantastic  and  extravagant  stories  in  modern  setting. 
The  character  work  is  never  subtle,  the  emphasis  being 
always  upon  the  story.  The  structure  and  style  are  superior 
to  Scott's.  Description  for  its  own  sake  is  avoided.  The 
story  movement  is  more  rapid,  the  diction  more  discrimi- 
nating, the  sentence  structure  firmer,  the  grace  of  style 
more  pronounced. 

Swinburne's  Paganism.  —  Algernon  Charles  Swinburne 
(1837-1909),  the  last  of  the  great  Victorian  poets,  stands 
somewhat  apart  from  his  age.  He  was  not  a  moral  and 
religious  poet  like  Tennyson  or  Browning ;  on  the  contrary, 
he  inveighed  against  Christianity.  He  did  not  find  his 
chief  inspiration  in  the  mystery  and  superstition  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  although  one  of  his  best  long  narrative  poems 
is  Tristram  of  Lyonesse.  His  inspiration  came  chiefly  from 
paganism.  He  was  an  impressionalist,  giving  way  to  self- 
indulgence  and  neglecting  moral  issues. 

Swinburne's  Poetic  Style.  —  His  poetic  style  is  to  most 
readers  l)ewildering,  for  it  is  inexhaustibly  rich  in  words  and 
images.  At  times  it  is  verbose.  The  charm  of  his  poetry 
lies  in  his  mastery  of  rhythm  and  rime.  Sometimes  the 
rich  music  of  the  verse  is  developed  at  the  expense  of  the 


THE    VICTORIAN   ERA  317 

thought.  The  reader  is  borne  along  by  mere  sensuous 
beauty  independent  of  the  meaning  of  the  lines.  The  effect 
is  that  of  verse  music  rather  than  of  poetry.  The  best 
lyrics  have  to  do  with  the  sea  and  with  the  beauty  and 
pathos  of  child  life.  One  of  his  most  finished  longer  poems 
is  Atalanta  in  Calydon,  a  drama  after  the  Greek  model. 
"  The  action  moves  with  stately  swiftness,  in  obedience  to 
the  strict  canons  of  Greek  form ;  the  pathos  is  deep  and  gen- 
uine ;  and  the  music,  especially  in  the  choruses,  is  splendid 
in  range  and  sweep." 

Walter  Pater  (1839-1894)  was  an  impressionistic  critic. 
He  had  a  highly  sensitive  nature  and  gave  himself  to  the 
analysis  and  explanation  of  his  sensations.  To  him  the  en- 
tire world  of  experience  was  in  a  state  of  flux ;  nothing  was 
fixed.  His  business  was  to  catch  the  impression  of  the 
moment,  and  experience  its  full  aesthetic  effect.  He  was  a 
highly  refined  pagan  —  an  Epicurean  in  the  best  sense.  He 
believed  in  life,  abundant  life,  a  life  of  various  and  select 
sensations.  He  was  not  opposed  to  harmony,  discipline, 
and  self-control ;  but  he  did  not  emphasize  these  as  Matthew 
Arnold  did.  Pater  would  cultivate  in  every  way  the  power 
to  appreciate  impressions  and  sensations.  He  became 
therefore  an  appreciative  rather  than  a  dogmatic  critic  of 
life  and  literature.  His  most  characteristic  writings  are: 
Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance  (1873),  Marius  the 
Epicurean  (1885),  Imaginary  Portraits  (1887),  and  Appreci- 
ations (1889).  Marius,  the  Epicurean  seems  to  contain 
much  that  is  autobiographical. 

Summary.  —  With  Stevenson,  Swinburne,  and  Pater  the 
Victorian  Era  comes  to  an  end.  It  was  an  age,  as  we 
have  seen,  rich  in  both  prose  and  poetry,  with  influences 
both  romantic  and  classical,  both  idealistic  and  materialis- 
tic.    The  great  writers  represent  all  the  phases  of  a  many- 


318  STUDIES  IN  LITERATURE 

sided  national  life.  Macaulay  was  the  brilliant  historian 
of  material  progress ;  Carlyle,  the  preacher  of  idealism ; 
Ruskin,  the  democratizer  of  art ;  Arnold,  the  analytical 
critic ;  Dickens,  the  champion  of  the  lower  classes ;  Thack- 
eray, the  mild  satirist  of  high  society ;  George  Eliot,  the 
philosophical  interpreter  of  the  laws  of  life ;  Browning,  the 
poet  of  optimism ;  Tennyson,  the  poet  of  the  struggle  be- 
tween science  and  faith.  All  of  them  show  the  intimate 
relation  which  exists  between  literature  and  life. 

Suggested  Readings^ 

Macaulay :  Essmj  on  Dr.  Johnson. 

Essays  on  Milton  and  Addison. 
Carlyle  :  TJie  Essay  on  Burns. 

Heroes  and  Hero-Worship,  Lecture  I. 
Dickens  :  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 
Thackeray :  Henry  Esmond. 
George  Eliot :  Silas  Marner. 
Arnold  :  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 
Huxley  :  Selections  from  Lay  Sermons. 
Ruskin  :  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

The  King  of  the  Golden  River. 
Tennyson  :  Idylls  of  the  King. 
Browning :  Shorter  Poems. 
Morris:    The  Lovers  of  Gudrun  in  The   Earthly  Paradise,   The 

Story  of  the  Glittering  Plain  (published  by  Longmans, 
Green  and  Co.). 
Stevenson  :     Treasure  Island,  Kidnapped. 

'  Except  where  special  editions  are  mentioned,  the  books  may  be  had 
in  the  Pocket  Series  of  English  Classics  published  by  The  Macmillan 
Company. 


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Schofield,  W.  H.,  English  Literature  from  the  Norman 

Conquest  to  Chaucer,  Macmillan 1.50 

Sellar,  W.  J.,  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age,  Virgil, 

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Stedman,  E.  C,  American  Anthology,  Houghton 3.00 

Stedman,  E.  C,  Victorian  Anthology,  Houghton 3.00 

Y 


322  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Stephenson,  H.  T.,  Shakespeare's  London,  Holt $2.00 

Taine,  H.,  History  of  English  Literature,  Holt 1.75 

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Thayer,  W.  R.,  Best  English  Plays,  Ginn 1.40 

*Thorndike,  A.  H.,  Tragedy,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co 1.50 

Tolman,  A.  H.,  Questions  on  Shakespeare,  University  of 

Chicago  Press Part  I,  75  cents;    Part  II,  1.00 

Walker,    Hugh,    The   Literature   of  the    Victorian   Era, 

Cambridge  University  Press 3.50 

Ward,  T.  H.,  English  Poets,  (4  Vols.),  Macmillan 4.00 

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ENGLISH    CLASSICS 

Addison,  J.,  Spectator,  Macmillan 1.50 

Arnold,  M.,  Essays  in  Criticism,  (2  Vols.),  Macmillan. .  3.00 

Austen,  J.,  Works,  (5  Vols.),  Putnam 2.50 

Bacon,  Essays,  ed.  by  West,  Putnam 1.00 

Blackmore,  Lorna  Doone,  Ginn .65 

Boswell,  Life  of  Johnson,  (2  Vols.),  (Everyman's  Lib.), 

Button 70 

Browne,  Sir  T.,  Religio  Medici  Sind  Urn  Burial,  (Every- 
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Browning,  R.,  Complete  Works,  (Cambridge  ed.),  Hough- 
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Bryant,  W.  C,  Poetical  Works,  (Household  ed.),  Apple- 
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Bunyan,    J.,    Pilgrim's    Progress,    (Everyman's    Lib.), 

Button .35 

Burke,  E.,  Selected  Works,  (3  Vols.),  Macmillan 3.60 

Burns,  R.,  Poems,  Songs  and  Letters,  (Globe  ed.),  Mac- 
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Byron,  Lord,  Poems,  (Cambridge  ed.),  Houghton 3.00 

Carlyle,  T.,  Heroes  and  Hcro-Worship,  (Athen.  Press), 

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Carlyle,  T.,  Sartor  Resartus,  (Athen.  Press),  Ginn 80 

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Coleridge,  S.  T.,  Poetical  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan  1.75 
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Cowper,  W.,  Poetical  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan.  .  .  1.75 
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Bryden,  J.,  Poetical  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan.  .  .  1.75 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  Works,  (5  Vols.),  (Bohn  Lib.),  Bell.  .  .  4.35 
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Goldsmith,  O.,  Miscellaneous  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Mac- 
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Gray,  T.,  Selections,  (Athen.  Press),  Ginn 80 

Harte,  B.,  Complete  Poems,  (Cabinet  ed.),  Houghton. . .  1.00 
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Hawthorne,  N.,  Works,  (8  Vols.),  (Popular  ed.),  Hough- 
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Holmes,  O.  W.,  Works,  (14  Vols.),  (Riverside ed.),  Hough- 
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sics), Oxford  Press 11.00 

Keats,  J.,  Poetical  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan 1.75 

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Kipling,  R.,  Works,  (15  Vols.),  Boubleday 15.00 

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324  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Scott 25 

Malory,  Sir  T.,  Morte  d" Arthur,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan  1.75 

Meredith,  G.,  Works,  (16  Vols.),  Scribner 24.00 

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or  by  Masson,  Macmillan 1.75 

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Clarendon  Press 1.50 

Shakespeare,  W.,  Works,  ed.  by  Rolfe,  (40  Vols.),  Ameri- 
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Shelley,  B.  P.,  Poetical  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan.  1.75 

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Stevenson,  K.  L.,  (27  Vols.),  Scribner 27.00 

Swift,  J.,  Gulliver's   Travels,  (ed.  by  Scott),  Bell 1.00 

Swift,  J.,  Tale  of  a  Tub,  (ed.  by  Scott),  Bell 1.00 

c    •  ,             »    n     r.           I  CroweU 1.75 

Swinburne,  A.  C,  Poems, 


(6  Vols.),  Harper 12.00 

Taylor,   B.,   Poetical   Works,    (Household  ed.),  Hough- 
ton    1.50 

Tennyson,  A.,  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan 1.75 

Thackeray,  W.  M.,  Complete  Works,  (10  Vols.),  Estes. .  10.00 

Thomson,  J.,  Poetical  Works,  Oxford  Press 1.00 

Thoreau,  H.,  Walden,  Houghton 3.00 

Walton,  I.,  Complete  Angler,  (Everyman's  Lib.),  Dutton  .35 

Webster,  D.,  Great  Speeches  and  Orations,  Little.  ......  3.00 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  325 

Wliittier,  J.  G.,  Complete   Poetical   Works,  (Cambridge 

ed.),  Houghton $2.00 

Wordsworth,  W.,  Poetical  Works,  (Globe  ed.),  Macmillan  1.75 

TRANSLATIONS 

The  Bible,  (Authorized  Version),  "International,"  Win- 
ston    1.50 

The  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  (ed.  by  R.  G.  Moulton),  Mac- 
millan    2.00 

The  Odyssey,  transl.  by  Palmer,  Houghton ,75 

The  Iliad,  transl.  by  Butcher  and  Lang,  Macmillan. . . .  1.50 
The  Judgment  of  Socrates,  transl.  by  More,  (Riv.  Ser.), 

Houghton .15 

The  Divine  Comedy,  transl.  by  Longfellow,   (3  Vols.), 

Houghton 4.50 

The  Song  of  Roland,  transl.  by  Butler,  (Riv.  Ser.),  Hough- 
ton   40 

Don  Quixote,  transl.  by  Matteux,  (2  Vols.),  Macmillan  2.00 

The  Nibelungenlied,  transl.  by  Shumway,  Houghton. . .  .  .75 

Goethe's  Faust,  transl.  by  Taylor,  Houghton 2.50 

The  Rubaiyat  of  Omar  Khayyam,  trans,  by  Fitzgerald, 

Button 1.00 

The  Kalevala,  transl.  by  Kirby,  (2  Vols.),  (Everyman's 

Lib.),  Button 70 

The  Mabinogion,  transl.  by  Lady  Guest,  (Everyman's 

Lib.),  Button 35 


INDEX 


Absalom  and  Achitophcl,  253. 

AduDi  Bede,  16,  2U9,  300. 

Addison,  76,  77,  «4,  85,  86,  88,  92, 
123,  191,  260,  261,  267;  Coverley 
papers,  77-83  ;  Cato,  252  ;  Pope's 
satire,  255 ;  Tatler  and  Spectator, 
257. 

Adonais,  281. 

yEneid,  The,  9-14,  205,  246;  a 
literary  epic,  9  ;  compared  with  The 
Iliad,  9-10;  relation  to  national 
tradition,  10;  suggestions  for 
study,  10-14. 

Alexander's  Feast,  253. 

Alfred  the  Great,  188. 

All  for  Love,  251. 

Anatomy  of  M dancholy ,  242. 

Ancren  Riwle,  201. 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  166,  313. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  189,  193. 

Anglo-Saxon  Literature,  early  litera- 
ture, 177  ;  literature  of  tradition, 
178;  Bcoirulf,  179;  Christian 
literature,  182-189. 

Apologia,  Newman's,  302,  303. 

Arcopagitica,  245. 

Argumentative  Address,  109  ;  Speech 
on  Conciliation,  110-121. 

Aristotle,  221. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  8,  12,  171,  172, 
196;  attitude  toward  life,  303; 
literature  vs.  science,  304 ;  criti- 
cism, 304;    poetry,  305. 

Arthur,   King,   182,   192,   193,  221. 

Atalanta  in  Calydon,  317. 

Austen,  Jane,  295. 


Bacon,  Francis,  223. 
Balder  Dead,  12. 


Ballad,  the,  197-201  ;  Robin  Hood, 
197;  Sir  Patrick  S  pence,  199; 
Chevy  Chace,  199;  Tarn  Lin,  199; 
eighteenth  century,  271 ;  Cole- 
ridge's ballads,  278 ;  Minstrelsy 
of  the  Scottish  Border,  282 ;  Ros- 
setti's  ballads,  314. 

Battle  of  Brunanburh,  181. 

Battle  of  the  Books,  259. 

Battle  of  Maldon,  181. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  235. 

Bede,  Ecclesiastical  History,  183, 
188. 

Beowulf,  179,  182,  246. 

Biographia  Literaria,  286. 

Blackwood's  Magazine,  92,  257,  287. 

Blair,  Robert,  The  Grave,  270. 

Boswell,  James,  92,  93,  94,  260. 

Browne,   Sir  Thomas,   242,   243. 

Browning,  Robert,  166,  291;  dra- 
matic qualities,  312;  range,  313; 
fame  of,  314. 

Brut,  Layamon's,  193. 

Budgcll,  Eustace,  80,  81. 

Bunyan,  John,  243,  247. 

Burke,  Edmund,  97,  109,  124,  131, 
256;  Speech  on  Conciliation,  110- 
121  ;  romantic  tendencies,  262 ; 
essays,  267. 

Burns,  Robert,  92 ;  Carlyle's  essay, 
100-109  ;    poetry.  273. 

Burton,  Robert,  242. 

Butler,  Samuel,  254. 

Byron,  103,  163,  169,  305  ;  romanti- 
cism, 282  ;  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution,  283 ;    satires,   283. 


Ca^dmon,  183,  193. 

Canterbury  Tales,  The,   203,  200,  20S 

327 


328 


INDEX 


Carlyle,  Thomas,  92,  93,  94,  287, 
291,  292,  297,  303;  Essay  on 
Burns,  100-107 ;  philosophy  of 
life,  293  ;  history  and  biography, 
295. 

Castle  of  Indolence,  270. 

Castle  of  Otranto,  271. 

Celts,  the,  181. 

Chatterton,  Thomas,  272. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  191,  221  ;  Age 
of,  201-209;  French  period,  203; 
Italian  period,  204 ;  English 
period,  205. 

Chevy  Chace,   199,  257,  267,   271. 

Childe  Harold,  282. 

Christabel,  278. 

Chronicle  History  plays,  39-45,  52, 
226,  232. 

Clarissa  Harlowe,  264. 

Cleon,  313. 

Clive,  Essay  on,  92. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  59,  93, 
163,  282,  287,  289,  293;  poetic 
method,  277  ;  loss  of  poetic  power, 
278 ;  influence  of  French  Revolu- 
tion, 279;  critical  work,  286. 

Comedy,  63-74;  characteristics,  63- 
65 ;  study  of,  64-74 ;  after  the 
Restoration,  252. 

Compleat  Angler,  The,  243. 

Comus,  158-163,  236. 

Coming  of  Arthur,  149-150,  154. 

Conciliation  with  America,  Burke's 
speech,  110-121,  262;  notes  on 
subject  matter,  115-118;  notes 
on  structure  and  style,   119-121. 

Congreve,   William,   250,   252. 

Conquest  of  Granada,    The,   251. 

Consolations  of  Philosophy,  189. 

Cowley,  Abraham,  242,  257. 

Cowper,  William,  272,  275. 

Crashaw,  Richard,  241. 

Criticism,  266-267. 

Cynewulf,  187. 

Dante's  Divine  Comedy,  173. 
Daniel  Deronda,  300. 
Darwin,  Charles,  291,  301. 
Davenaut,  251. 


Death  of  Blanche  the  Duchesse,  204. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  102,  263. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  60,  85,  288; 
critical  works,   289 ;    style,  289. 

Deserted  Village,  The,  256. 

Dickens,  Charles,  296. 

Doctor  Faustus,  228. 

Donne,  John,  240. 

Dover  Beach,  305. 

Drama,  38-73 ;  beginnings,  38 ; 
chronicle  history,  39-45  ;  tragedy, 
45-63 ;  comedy,  63-73 ;  rise  of, 
209-217;  drama  of  blood,  226; 
after  the   Restoration,   251-253. 

Dryden,  John,  251,  253,  266. 

Dunciad,  The,  255. 

Earthly  Paradise,    The,   163,   315. 
Edinburgh     Revieiv,     The,     91,     257, 

287. 
Edward  II,  229,  230. 
Elegy,  Gray's,  270. 
English  Mail  Coach,  The,  85,  288. 
English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers, 

284. 
Epic,    the,    popular,     1  ;     origin,    2 ; 

literary,  246. 
Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  255. 
Essay,    the,    75-107 ;     informal,    75- 

91 ;     formal,    91-107 ;     definition, 

75 ;     popularity,    76 ;     suggestions 

for     study,     77-107 ;      eighteenth 

century,  257-263. 
Essay  of  Dramatic  Poetry,  Dryden's, 

266. 
Essay   on   Burns,    100-107 ;     sugges- 
tions   for    first    reading,    101-104 ; 

suggestions     for     second     reading, 

104-107. 
Essay  on  Criticism,  256,  266. 
Essay  on  Man,  256. 
Essays  of  Elia,  288. 
Euphues,  220,  223. 
Everett,  Edward,  135. 
Everyman,  213. 
Examiner,  The,  258. 
E.xpository    Address,    the,    121-136; 

defined,      121  ;       suggestions      for 

study,  122-136. 


INDEX 


329 


Faerie  Queene,  The,  158,  221. 

Faithful   Shepherdess,    The,   236. 

Farewell  Address,  Washington's,  notes 
on  sut)joct  matter,  122-12-1;  notes 
on  structure  and  style,  124-126. 

Fielding,   Henry,  264,  265,   285. 

First  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  Webster's, 
133,  134;  subject  matter  126- 
128 ;  structure  and  style,  128- 
131  ;    topics,  131. 

Fiske,  John,  110,  126. 

Fletcher,  John,  97. 

Frazer's  Magazine,  92. 

French  Revolution,  106 ;  influence 
of,  272,  279,  280,  283. 

Gammer  Gurton's   Needle,   224. 

Gareth  and  Lynette,  150-152. 

Garrick,  David,  95,  255. 

Gawayne  and  the  Green  Knight,  194. 

Gentleman's  Magazine,   The,   257. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,   14G,   192. 

George  Eliot,  16,  24,  34,  291,  296; 
realism,  298 ;  structure  and  style, 
299. 

Godwin,  William,  273. 

Golden  Treasury,  Palgrave's,  163- 
174 ;  narratives  of  common  life, 
164-165;  ballads,  165  ;  war  poems, 
166  ;  nature  poems,  169  ;  poems  of 
melancholy,  170;  sonnets,  170; 
odes,  172-174. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  95,  253,  255,  266. 

Gorboduc,  225,  226,   230,  234. 

Gray,  Thomas,  270,  271. 

Gregory,  Pope,  182,  189. 

Gulliver's   Travels,  79,  259,  264. 

Hamlet,  231,  234,  236. 

Hawthorne,    Nathaniel,    17,    91. 

Hazlitt,  William,  287. 

Henry  ir,  40,  88. 

Henry  V,  42-45,  231. 

Henry  Esmond,  298. 

Herbert,  George,  241. 

Heroes   and   Hero-Worship,   295. 

Herrick,  Robert,  239. 

Heywood,  John,  215. 

Heywoed,  Thomas,  235. 


Holinshcd,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  58,  63. 

Holy  Grail,  The,  193. 

Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,  242. 

House  of  Fame,  The,  204. 

House    of    Seven    Gables,     The,     18 ; 

a   romance    of  the    spirit,    31-32 ; 

suggestions  for  study,  32-37. 
Hudibras,  254. 
Humanism,  217. 
Humphrey  Clinker,  265. 

Idealism  of  Victorian  Era,  301-318. 

Idler,  The,  257,  260. 

Idylls  of  the  King,  137,  193 ;  in- 
troduction, the  study  of,  145-149 
The  Coming  of  Arthur,  149-150 
Gareth  and  Lynette,  150-152 
Lancelot  and  Elaine,  152-153  ;  The 
Passing  of  Arthur,  153-155  ;  topics, 
155;    theme  of,  311. 

Iliad,  The,  2-8,  179,  246;  popular 
epic,  2  ;  life  of,  3  ;  origin,  3  ;  sug- 
gestions for  study,  4-9. 

II  Penseroso,  157,  158,  162,  244,  270. 

Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings, 
262. 

Indian  Emperor,  The,  251. 

In  Memoriam,  309. 

Interludes,  215. 

Intimations  of  Immortality,  Ode  on, 
276. 

Invention  of  Printing,  the,  218. 

Irving,  Washington,  83,  84-91,  92. 

Ivanhoe,  18,  35,  138,  141,  157,  190, 
198 ;  a  romance,  18-19 ;  sug- 
gestions for  study,  19-24 ;  topics, 
24. 

Jeffrey,  Francis,  92,  287. 

Jew  of  Malta,  The,  228. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  75,  77 ;  life,  92- 
100 ;  drama,  252 ;  poems,  256 ; 
range,  260 ;  style,  261  ;  romantic 
tendencies,  262 ;  praise  of  Shake- 
speare, 267. 

Jones,  Inigo,  160,  235. 

Jonson,  Ben,  tragedies,  234 ;  come- 
dies,  234;    masks,   235,   251. 

Journal  of  the  Plague  Year,  263, 


330 


INDEX 


Journal  to  Stella,  2G0. 
Julius  •  Cwsar,     47-48  ;      suggestions 
for  study,  48-52. 

Keats,  John,  163,  166,  171,  172,  174, 

284,  289,  314. 
Kelmscott  Press,  315. 
JCulnappcd,  316. 
Kipling,  Rudyard,  166. 
Knight's  Tale,  The,  208. 
Kuhla  Khan,  278. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  The,  137,  199; 
suggestions  for  study,  139-145  ; 
topics,  145. 

L' Allegro,  155-157,  158,  244. 

Lamb,  Charles,  229,  287,  289. 

Lancelot  and  Elaine,  152-153. 

Langland,   William,   202,  206. 

Lawes,  Henry,  160. 

Layanion,  Brut,  193 ;    language,  193. 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  The,  282. 

Lear,  King,  232,  234,  236. 

Legend  of  Good  Women,  204. 

Letters  on  a  Regicide  Peace,  262. 

Lewis,  Matthew  Gregory,  271,  285, 
295. 

Life  of  Johnson,  Macaulaj^'s,  92- 
100;  subject  matter,  94-98;  struc- 
ture and  style,  98-100. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  124 ;  addresses, 
131-136. 

Lives  of  the  Poets,  Johnson's,  261. 

London  Magazine,  257. 

Love  for  Love,  252. 

Lovelace,  Richard,  239. 

Lowell,  James  R.,  87. 

Luther,  Martin,  219. 

Lycidas,  244. 

Lyiy,  John,  220,  233. 

Lyrical  Ballads,    The,    163,    277. 

Lyric  Poetry,  L' Allegro,  155-157 ; 
II  Penseroso,  157-158;  Comus, 
158-163  ;  Palgrave's  Golden  Treas- 
ury, 163-174. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  5,  7S,  79,  92,   102, 

106,  291,  292. 
Macbeth,    48,    231,    234;     struduro, 


52-53 ;  suggestions  for  study, 
54-63;  topics,  63. 

MacFlecknoe,  253,  254. 

Maldon,  The  Battle  of,  181. 

Malory,  Sir  Thomas,  88,  147,  193, 
196. 

Manfred,  283. 

Marius  the  Epicurean,  163. 

Marlowe,  Christopher,  46,  228-230, 
236. 

Marmion,  282. 

Meredith,  George,  300,  301. 

Metaphj'sical  School  of  Poetry, 
240. 

Michael,  165. 

Middlemarch,  299. 

Middleton,  Thomas,  236. 

Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  70-74, 
231,  233 ;  connection  with  the 
mask,  70-72 ;  suggestions  for 
study,  72-74 ;    topics,  74. 

Mill  on  the  Floss,  The,  299,  300. 

Milton,  John,  1,  92,  243,  244,  250, 
257,  270  ;  Macaulay's  Essay,  102  ; 
L' Allegro,  155-157  ;  II  Penseroso, 
157-158;  Comus,  158-163;  Areo- 
pagitica,  245  ;  Paradise  Lost,  245  ; 
influence  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 269. 

Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border, 
282. 

Miracle  Plays,  39,  211. 

Mirror  for  Magistrates,  220. 

Modern  Painters,  306. 

Modest  Proposal,  259. 

Monk,  The,  271. 

Morality  Plays,  213. 

Morris  Dance,  71,  159. 

Morris,  William,  163,  196,  314,  315. 

Morle  d' Arthur,  193,  196. 

Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  232,  233. 

Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  The,  271. 

Mystery  Plays,  211. 

Narrative  Poetry,    137-174. 
Nature  in  Eighteenth  Century  Litera- 
ture, 272. 
Newcomes,  The,  298. 
Newman,  John  Henry,  302. 


INDEX 


331 


Night  Thoughts,  270. 

Northern  Antiquities,  271. 

Novel,  the,  compared  with  the 
romance,  16-17,  25;  in  the 
eighteenth     century,     263-266. 

A'M/i's  Priest's  Tale,  The,  20S. 

Observations  on  the  Faerie  Queene, 
267,  270. 

Ode,  the,  172-175;  Ode  on  a  Gre- 
cian Urn,  284  ;  Ode  to  a  Nightin- 
gale, 284  ;  Ode  to  Duty,  '111 ;  De- 
jection: an  Ode,  278;  Ode  on  the 
Departing  Year,  279;  France: 
an  Ode,  279 ;  Ode  on  Intimations 
of  Immortality,  276. 

CEnone,  11. 

Old  English  Baron,    The,  271. 

Origin  of  Species,  The,  301. 

Orphan,  The,  252. 

Ossiau,  272. 

Otway,  Thomas,  252. 

Oxford  Movement,  the,  301. 

Palace  of  Pleasure,  Painter's,  220. 

Pamela,  264. 

Paradise  Lost,  4,  245,  270. 

Partridge   Predictions,    The,   258. 

Passing  of  Arthur,  The,  150,  153- 
155. 

Pater,  Walter,  163,  315,  317. 

Pearl,  The,  201. 

Pepys,  Samuel,  88. 

Percy,  Bishop,  271. 

Petrarch,  219. 

Picaresque  Stories,  263. 

Piers  Plowman,  202. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  148,  247. 

Plautus,  215,  224. 

Poetry,  Romantic,  269-285. 

Pope,  Alexander,  94,  95,  250,  255, 
256,  257. 

Pre-Raphaelite  Movement,  The,  314. 

Pride  and  Prejudice,  296. 

Prisoner  of  Chillon,  The,  283. 

Prometheus  Unbound,  280. 

Public  Address,  The,  108-136;  de- 
fined, 108;  argumentative,  109- 
121;    expository,    121-136. 


Quarterly     Review,      The,     92,      257, 
287. 

Radcliffe,  Mrs.  Ann,  271,  285,  295. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  221. 

Ralph  Roister  Doister,  224,  233. 

Rambler,  The,  99,  257,  260. 

Rape  of  the  Lock,  The,  256. 

Rasselas,  100,  261. 

Realism,  295-301. 

Reeve,  Clara,  271. 

Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution, 

Burke's,  262. 
Religio  Medici,  243. 
Reliques   of  Ancient  English  Poetry, 

271. 
Renaissance,  The,  217-237. 
Retaliation,  95,  255. 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  97. 
Richardson,   Samuel,    102,   264,   285. 
Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,  277. 
Ring  and  the  Book,  The,  313. 
Rivals,  The,  253. 

Robin  Hood,  21,  22,  24,  197,  211,  271. 
Robinson  Crusoe,  263. 
Romance,   15;    of  the  spirit,   17-18; 

medieval,     191-197 ;       Arthurian, 

191 ;     in  the    eighteenth    century, 

270. 
Romanticism,      in     the     eighteenth 

century,  269 ;    decline  of,   292. 
Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  The,  204. 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  157,  231. 
Ro7nola,  299. 
Rossetti,  D.  G.,  314. 
Ruskin,  John,  306-307. 

Samson  Agonistcs,  245. 

Sartor  Resartus,  106,  294. 

Saul,  313. 

School  for  Scandal,  The,  253. 

Schoolmistress,  The,  269. 

Science,  301. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  15,  26,  33,  93,  150, 
271 ;  poetry  of,  281  ;  prose  ro- 
mances,  285 ;    methods  of,  285. 

Scylla  and  Charybdis,   11. 

Sea-farer,  The,  181. 

Seasons,  The,  272. 


332 


INDEX 


Seneca,  215,  226,  234. 

Sense  and  Sensibility,  296. 

Seven  Latnps  of  Architecture,  306. 

Shakespeare,  William.  1,  46,  47,  80, 
87,  90,  97,  157,  196,  2.30-233,  250, 
251,  261,  287;  periods  of  work, 
231;  history  plays,  232;  comedy, 
233 ;   tragedy,  233. 

Shelley,  P.  B.,  163,  168,  174,  283, 
286,  289 ;  Godwin's  influence  on, 
273  ;  revolutionary  poems,  280 ; 
as  a  thinker,  281 ;  Adonais, 
281. 

Shenstone,  William,  269. 

Shepherd's  Calendar,  220. 

Sheridan,  R.  B.,  253. 

Sidney,  Sir  Phihp,  220,  221,  223. 

Silas  Marner,  18,  299 ;  character- 
istics, 24-25 ;  suggestions  for 
study,  26-31. 

Silent  Woman,  The,  234-235. 

Sir  Charles  Grandison,  264. 

Sir  Patrick  Spence,  199,  271. 

Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers,  The, 
85,  123,  258,  263;  suggestions 
for  study,  77-83 ;    topics,  83. 

Sketch  Book,  The,  83-91 ;  notes  on, 
85-91  ;    topics,  91. 

Smollett,  Tobias,  265. 

Sonnet,  The,  170. 

Sophocles,  97. 

Southey,  Robert,  284. 

Spanish  Tragedy,  The,  226. 

Spectator,  The,  76,  91,  250,  257, 
263,  267. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  158,  196,  220, 
221,  250,  269. 

Spenserian  Stanza,  The,  222. 

Steele,  Richard,  76,  77,  78,  81,  252, 
258. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  265. 

Stevenson,    Robert   Louis,   291,   315. 

Stones  of  Venice,  306. 

Story  of  the  Glittering  Plain,  The, 
315. 

Surrey,  Earl  of,  219. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  79,  258,   264. 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles,  196, 
315-317. 


Tale  of  a  Tub,  259. 

Tamburlaine,  228. 

Task,  The,  272. 

Tatler,  The,  76,  91,  257,  258,  263. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  242. 

Taylor,  Tom,  59. 

Tennyson,    Alfred,    1,    11,    88,    196, 

291;     Dora,     165;      Idylls    of    the 

King,  193,  310-311;    early  poetry, 

308  ;    science,  309 ;    In  Memoriam, 

310. 
Terence,  215,  224. 
Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  24, 

291,  296-299. 
Thomson,   James,   270,   272,  275. 
Tintern  Abbey,  275. 
Tom  Jones,  264. 
TotteVs  Miscellany,  219. 
Tragedy,    45-63,    233 ;      beginnings, 

46 ;     structure,    46-47 ;     study    of 

Julius  Ccesar,     47-52 ;       study  of 

Macbeth,  52-63. 
Treasure  Island,  316. 
Tristram  Shandy,  265. 
Triumph  of  Peace,  The,  ITO. 
Twelfth  Night,   64,   66,   73,  90,  231, 

233 ;     suggestions    for    study,    67- 

90. 
Tyndale,  WUliam,  219. 

Unto  this  Last,  307. 

Van  Dyke,  Henrj-,  147. 
Vanity  Fair,  298. 
Venice  Preserved,  252. 
Vicar  of  Wakefield,  The,  266. 

Waller,  Edmund,  256. 
Walton,  Isaac,  243. 
Warren  Hastings,  92. 
Warton,  Joseph,  267,  270. 
Warton,  Thomas,  267,  270. 
Washington,    George,    82,    121,    124, 

133,  134. 
Way  of  the  World,  The,  252. 
Webster,  Daniel,  108,  121,  124,  126- 

131,   133,   134;    study  of  orations, 

126-131. 
Webster,  John,  236. 


I 


INDEX 


333 


Westminster  Abbey,  83,  88. 

Widsith,  181. 

Wilson,  John  (Christopher  North), 
92,  287. 

Wordsworth,  WiUiam,  93,  163,  165, 
167,  168,  169,  171,  174,  280,  287, 
289,  294,  305 ;  peasant  poetry, 
274-275 ;   speculations,  276  ;  moral 


ideas,  277 ;  sonnets,  277 ;  influ- 
ence of  the  French  Revolution, 
279  ;    critical  writings,  286. 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  219. 

Wycherley,  William,  252. 

Wyclif,  John,  203,  206,  219. 

Young,  Edward,  270. 


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Addison's  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley.     (Gray.) 

Andersen's  Danish  Fairy  Tales  and  Legends.    (Brook;,.) 

Arabian  Nights.     (Johnson.) 

Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum  and  other  Poems.     (Castleman  ) 

Austen's  Pride  and  Prejudice.     (Heermans.) 

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Baker's  Out  of  the  Northland.    (E.  K.  Baker.) 

Blackmore's  Lorna  Doone.     (Barbour.) 

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Bryant's  Thanatopsis,  Sella,  and  other  Poems.     (Castleman.) 

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Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress.     (Moflatt.) 

Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America.    (Newsom.) 

Burns 's  Poems.     (Buck.) 

Byron's  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage.     (George.) 

Byron's  Shorter  Poems.     (Bowles.) 

Carlyle's  Essay  on  Burns.     (Gore.) 

Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship.     (Marble.) 

Carroll's  Alice  in  Wonderland.     (McMurry.; 

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Church's  The  Story  of  the  Iliad. 

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Coleridge's  The  Ancient  Mariner,  Kubla  Khan,  and  Chrlstabel.     (Huntington.) 

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Cooper's  The  Deerslayer. 

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Dana's  Two  Years  before  the  Mast.    (Keyes.) 

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2 


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Mrs.  Gaskell's  Cranford.     (Sampson.) 

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Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield.     (Boynton.) 

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Irving's  Sketch  Book. 
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Thomas  a  Kempis's  The  Imitation  of  Christ.    (Brother  Leo.) 
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Shakespeare's  Midsummer-Night's  Dream.    (Noyes.) 
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Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night.     (Morton.) 
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Stevenson's  Kidnapped.     (Brown.) 
Stevenson's  Master  of  Ballantrae.     i  White.) 

Stevenson's  Travels  with  a  Donkey,  and  An  Inland  Voyagi,.     (.Jross.) 
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Swift's  Gulliver's  Travelii.    (Johnson.) 

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